

0 * ^ ^% A 

* / C° N S b, ' ■ » 

■fi U » c-ss^ <" ^ s 

1' . ->- v * s «*£vV\aW /■ 

^ o o 


4- 


* "p cr -A o 
^ ' 0 , K * <0 


■V 




t .. M _ x° o< 

» ,.. % % 

* °f *> o> N s * ♦ , ^ 

r n l~' ' * - ’ \ -A- ** ^ 

** JN\ '‘6 Ai -v 





v :„. V- 1 • ° 

- /r^% ^ 

^Mbi- ^ 

'V V x *> ^ C*» A O ^ ' j 

i. '•• s >\.‘". v--v 

s- ^ v. c ^ , ^yT7'7’-y ^ O 


-f ^ f0‘ L c 

* 

"o 0 X 

. ® oA >- 

1.' «f V 

3 N 0 \T 

„ ^ V * ’ * 0 * > 

<vr, .V, « jJ\ -'v A, ^ 

<P ,\V t JV , v. //% © 

V><^ 


*«> ^ 

V A y o , X * ^0' <* '*, ' " s 

* ° -' C 0 N c <- 

<wf / i 

* U r , «. >) , * v A ^V \ .,.Acv * 

— fA «\\’ J^\ ' '*Tn 



0 * jJM 

& - '*0 o' 

H X* 




oV - ^ X ^ * «V -\p , \ r 

'* -OKO.-C '"'..''V ,, ^5 '*K 

'* r *>■'' vu"^ 7 ?■ <\ ^ &?/K 1 ^ ^ O 

V c /t\ \ «✓* A N . /#" ./ - ^ 


% ’ * TiV'' o' -6 % ^ ,* it 

^ ^ * o , > s S * * ^ /- 3 N 0 x ^>' 

» v * x* % v » ( *' „"> 

^cs»- *, SKa *^ . 

c ^ 

. A v 

mv 

* 

<wft -< ^ ^ 

°/ r y 3 N 0 ^ ‘ ,6 X C 0 -> 

^ % V % Y * 0 ^ > " 1 cP s'** r 

\ > ^ ***»?' * 





*iS* ^ / 

f 0 > c° N c 4- ^ ' ** ' aN .v 

V.» ^ A *Ci JkV - * 


<4X)^ ^ ,S^ 

» ->. 0 \ v <f- * 

-x ^ w ,y ._ ; 

’ ^ K! ^ S V A 

0 0 ^ C J^'.>.'% ‘ “ ',/ ^ lfi 





> 





f f, . s < \ 


Q ' l\' V. I 8 


'..s' a' .,, %. '«. '\ jy . 

• \ * C , 0 ^ > --P j. . 

~ 0 o^ : 4!»»; ^ v* 


A 

v" V*. * 




© 

V V %A ‘“a ^ # " ,! >-A S'* A °% ^ *< 

.. A ~is’ ' wv^ •*» 

\> * r ~ ^ <A * * **\ 



*/> 4 

V ,s, 


_ * <lV 

s * * r , ^ 

/y x 

■' \# :a«Ji " '^. ^ 

t ^ 

■A' A * A‘ ^ 

, « A -i A' - % ^ 

I ,(V c»“ ' '■*,'<», #\- 1 ' 

'" -^W' A A * 

w : < r^.'. +*- # : 

4 ^ '-"•" A... -V,/ * v 0 © 

> v V *?W** o - v*^.' *>' 

,.„ 't-. *.n* $.° s ,. ( ■'V *» »«•> » v 

#C° •%, y *>$&'• A & s 

.aV^, » ' "■ ,r * *% •%. 

'V .>>■ ^ ‘ )i ' * A > 

fc — • > - ^ ^ A 




<r**s s A ... ^ y 0*x' k .0- <* ^/ Vk ,s N A 

AVlAvA c? ‘*A- ** ./ v*' 


^ > * 




AA- * A <$. 

I. * % "mrs '* ^ a -1 

f * * * s A A t I /? . ^ / 0 * 11 



' c^^° NC 
^ <«. ^ 

^ o x "w 

A Xj, r ^ 

N \V ^ 

<* a ^ r^ 

/, * o M 0 • V V ^ 

. . s r N ° V ^ A‘°a 

Cs. <4 4’ V f + *<> ^ T- <P ^4 * 

V 




AV '/>- ° 




A.' 1 cA 
# ' J 


* * ’ .A . i I I „ ' '■!■ ' 0 • * 0 N c -^. ' » * s ' ,j\ A , v I » 

.,'..^•'.-5 C l A'A 

/ wA -. **■ v* 


0 o_ 



* 

v° 

A ^ ✓ 

*''>• ... 















































9 


4 













* 






* 





\ 










# 




% 






4 


\ 




























\ 



4 





♦ 



















% 






. 



























* 





























* 













































































































































































• 








\ 





























































I 






























' ' . 
















V 










r . 




















‘c 

















































✓ 

m 

































- 





















































\ 



























































































































* •• • 












































































s 


























































































































A 

/ 


FIRST BOOK 


ON 


ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 


BY CALVIN CUTTER, M. D. 

AUTHOR OF “ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY FOR ACADEMIES,” ETC., 

A 

AND “ PHYSIOLOGY FOR COMMON SCHOOLS.” 


« 




fc " IT,ON - 



WITH EIGHTY-FOUR ENGRA 




PUBLISHED BY 

CLARK & AUSTIN, NEW YORK ; — B. B. MUSSEY & CO., BOSTON; — 

S. HAMILTON, ROCHESTER, N. Y.; —U. HUNT & SON, PHILADELPHIA. 

1847. 





O'* 






Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1847, 

By Calvin Cutter, M. D., 

In the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts. 


STEREOTYPED AT THE 
BOSTON TYPE AND STEREOTYPE FOUNDRY. 





PREFACE. 


In presenting this work to the public, the author would 
indulge in a few prefatory suggestions. 

Education, to be complete, must be not only moral and 
intellectual, but physical. As the culture of the mind and 
of the affections is the subject of systematic attention in 
early life, should not the education of the physical powers 
be commenced as early?' It will demand no more maturity 
and thought to understand the reasons for adequate clothing, 
bathing, the necessity of an erect position in standing and 
sitting, regularity in taking food, the supply of pure air to 
the lungs, &,c., than to comprehend geographical details or 
moral truths. Is not a knowledge of the laws and habits 
upon which health depends, as important to the development 
of a vigorous physical constitution, as moral instruction is 
to the formation of correct moral principles ? Can any 
reason be given why both should not be taught in the 
school-room ? 

A child should be taught to call each organ by its correct 
name. No more effort is required to learn the meaning of a 
proper , than an improper term. For example: a child will 
pronounce the word as readily, and obtain as correct an 
idea, if you say lungs, as if you used the word lights. 

In preparing this work, it has not been deemed necessary 
to use low, vulgar terms, for the purpose of being understood; 
but such words have been selected as good usage sanctions. 
Should the pupil meet with any word he does not understand, 
1 * 



6 


PREFACE. 


let him consult his dictionary, as he should do in perusing 
works upon history, when a similar difficulty occurs. 

It would be a profitable exercise for the pupil to draw the 
illustrating figure on a black-board or slate. This would 
impress the position of tire organs on the mind. 

With advanced pupils, it is recommended that the subject 
be examined in the form of topics. 

In this work, the technical words interspersed with the 
text, have been divided into syllables, and the accented syl¬ 
lables designated. An ample Glossary of technical terms 
has also been appended to the work, to which reference 
should be made. 

For a more full and complete explanation of Anatomy and 
Physiology, the pupil is referred to the author’s Treatise, of 
340 pages, for Academies, High Schools, and Families. 

To the instructors of youth, and the patrons of education, 
this work is respectfully submitted. 


Boston, August , 1847. 


CONTENTS 


A. 

Abdomen,.68 

Absorbents,.121 

-of the Skin,.98 

Absorption, .121 

Acids, Antidotes for,.139 

Air, Composition of the,.72 

-, the Effects of, when impure, ... .78 

- , the Effects of, on Sound,.84 

Air-Cells,.69 

Ammonia, Antidotes for,.138 

Aorta,.57 

Arsenic, Antidote for,.138 

Arteries,.54 

•-, Pulmonary,.56 

-, of the Skin,.97 

-, Treatment of divided,.64 

Asphyxia, from Drowning,.79 

-, from Hanging,.80 

■-, from Carbonic Acid Gas,.80 

Attitudes,.35, 83 

Auricles of the Heart,.54 

B. 

Bathing, Necessity of,.101 

-, proper Time for,.101 

-, Method of,.102, 135 

Belladonna, Antidote for,.141 

Bile,.46 

Blood,.54 

-, Circulation of,.58 

-—, Composition of,.61 

- r Change of,.72 

-, the Effects of, upon the Sys¬ 
tem when impure,.75 

-, the Effects of, upon the Brain,.93 


Bones, their Use,.11 

- of the Head,.11 

- of the Trunk,.12 

- of the Spinal Column,.12 

- of the Upper Extremities,.15 

- of the Lower Extremities,... .17 

.-, Composition of,.17 

-, Reunion of,.21 

-, Practical Suggestions on, .20—22 

Brain, .85 

-, Membranes of,.86 

-, Practical Suggestions on,..92—95 

-, Injuries- of,.94 

Bronchi,.69 

Bronchitis.83 

Burns and Scalds, Treatment of,.. 104 

C. 

Capillaries,.58 

-- of the Skin,.97 

Carbonic Acid Gas,.73 

Cartilage, .23 

Caul,.68 

Cerebellum,.88 


Cerebrum,. 86 

Ciie st,. 13/75 

-, Contractions of,.76 

Chyle,.. 

Chyme,.!...!.46 

Clavicle, ......*!i 6 

Clothing, Kind of,. 102 

, Change of,.103 

, Amount of,.103 


Conium, Antidote for,.141 

Copper, Antidote for,.139 

Cuticle, . 95 

Cutis Vera,.96 


D. 


Diaphragm,. 


-, the Effects of the Re- 


.69 


striction of the,. 75 

Digestive Organs,. 43 

--, the Effects of 


pure Air on the,.52 

the Effects of 


Position on the,. 53 

Practical Sug¬ 


gestions on the,.50—54 

Drinks,. 51 

Drowned, Treatment of Persons,.... 79 
Duodenum,.46 

E. 

Ear,.109 

-, Bones of,.12, 110 

Eye, . 113 

-, Method of removing Dust from,. 120 

F. 

Face, Bones of,.12 

Follicle,. 125 

Food, Changes of, during the diges¬ 
tive Process,.48 

-, Quantity of,.50 

-, Quality of,.51 

-, proper Time for taking,.52 

Foot, Structure of, .17 

Frozen Limbs, Treatment of,.104 

G. 

Gastric Juice,.45 

Glands, Salivary,.43 

-, Mesenteric,.48 

-, Perspiratory,.97, 99 

-, Lymphatic,.123 

-, Lachrymal,.118 

-, Oil,.99 

Glottis,.81 

v - 

II. 

Health, Means of preserving,.127 

Hearing, Sense of,.109 

-, Causes of impaired,.113 









































































































































CONTENTS 


8 


Heart, .54 

-, Contractions of the,.60 

-, Practical Suggestions on,.62—68 

Heat, Animal,.126 

Hemorrhage, Means of arresting,..64 

I. 

Intestines, .48 


Removal of Disease,.128 

Respiratory Organs, .69 

-, Practical 

Suggestions on the,.74—80 

Retina, .114,116 

Ribs,.12 

-, Contraction of,.76 


S. 


J. 

Joints,.22 

-, Practical Suggestions on,.25—26 


Ii. 


Lacteals,. 


Larynx,. 

.81 

Lead, Antidote for,. 


Ligaments,. 


Light, Influence of,. 


Liver,. 

.46 

Lungs,. 


M. 


Medulla Oblongata,. 

. 87 

Mineral Poisons,. 


Mercury, Antidote for, . 

.139 

Muscles, Structure of,. 

.26 

- , Use of,. 



, the Effects of pure Air on,.33 


-, the Effects of Light on,... .33 

-, Compression of,.34 

-, Influence of the Mind on,..36 

-, Training of,.38 

--, Effect of, on the Circula¬ 
tion of the Blood,.63 

-, Connection with the Brain, 90 

-, Practical Suggestions on 

the,.32—39 


N. 


Nerves,.87 

-, Use of the,.89 

-, Sympathetic,.92 

- of the Skin,.97 

-, Gustatory,.106 

-, Olfactory,.108 

.-, Auditory,.109, 112 

-, Optic,.116 

Nitre, Treatment for an Over-dose,. 139 

Nurses, Directions for,.132 


O. 


OESOPHAGUS,.44 

Omentum,.68 


Opium, Treatment fur an Over-dose,. 140 


P. 


Pancreas, .46 

Periosteum,.20 

Pelvis, Bones of,.15 

Pharynx,. 44 


Poisons and their Antidotes,. .138—141 


R. 


Radius,.16 

Reading, the proper Position in,..35, 83 


Saliva, .44 

Scapula, .16 

Secretion,.124 

Senses,.105 

Sitting, proper Position in.35 

Skeleton,.19 

Skin,. 95 


-, Practical Suggestions on,.101—105 

Skull, Bones of the,.11 

Sleeping-Rooms, Ventilation of,...78 

Smell, Sense of,. 107 

Sound,.82 

Spinal Column,.14 

-, Curvature of,.20 

-Cord,.14, 87 

Spleen,.68 

Strammonium, Treatment for an 

Over-dose, .141 

Strabismus, .119 

Sternum, .13 

Stomach, .45 

Sutures, Use of,.12 

Synovia,.23 


T. 


Taste, Sense of,.106 

Teeth,.39 

-, Practical Suggestions on, 41—43 

Tendon,.26 

Thoracic Duct,.48 

Throat, extraneous Bodies in,.79 

Touch, Sense of,.105 

Trachea,.69 


Ulna, 


u. 


16 


V. 

Valves of the Heart,.54 

-of the Aorta,.55 

-of the Pulmonary Artery, ....55 

Veins,. 54 

-of the Skin,.97 

Vegetable Poisons,.140 

Ventilation,.78 

Ventricles of the Heart,.54 

Vertebras,. 14 

Vision,. 113 

Voice,.81 

-Practical Suggestions on,. .83—85 

Vocal Cords,.81 

W. 

Waste, the amount of, through the 

Skin,.100 

Watchers, Directions for,.136 

Wounds, Treatment of,. 67 




















































































































FIRST BOOK 


Jt, 


\ 




ON 

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 


CHAPTER I. 

GENERAL REMARKS. 

1. Anatomy is a description of the organs , or parts of 
a body. 

Examples. 1st. Flowers have roots, stems, and blossoms. 
These are their organs. 2d. The teeth, stomach, and heart, 
are some of the organs of the human body. 

2. Physiology is a description of the function, or use 
of an organ. 

Examples. 1st. The roots of flowers suck up water, to 
make them grow. This is their function. 2d. The stom¬ 
ach, in man, is one of the organs that prepare the food for 
his growth. This is its function. 

3. Anatomy and Physiology are divided into two kinds, 
namely, Animal and Vegetable. 

4. Animal Anatomy and Physiology are again divided 
into Human and Comparative. 


1. What is anatomy? Give examples. 2. What is physiology? 
Give examples. 3. Plow many kinds of anatomy and physiology are 
there ? 4. How are animal anatomj' and physiology divided ? 




10 


GENERAL REMARKS. 


5. Human Anatomy and Physiology describe the struc¬ 
ture and functions of the organs of man. 

6 . Comparative Anatomy describes the structure of other 
animals than man. 

Examples. As the different organs of the horse, the 
whale, the monkey, and the eagle. 

7. Comparative Physiology describes the functions of the 
organs of these animals. 

8 . Vegetable Anatomy and Physiology describe the struc¬ 
ture and functions of different parts of trees, shrubs, plants, 
and flowers. 

9. All bodies in nature are divided into Organic and 
Inorganic. Organic bodies include animals and plants. In¬ 
organic bodies include earths, metals, and other minerals. 

10. All organized bodies have a limited period of life, 
and this period varies with every species. In some plants, 
the period is limited to a single summer, as many garden 
flowers; while some trees, as the olive, live many hundred 
years. Some animals live but a short time, while the ele¬ 
phant lives more than a century. 

11. This period of life is shortened by disease; but dis¬ 
ease is under the control of fixed laws — laws which we are 
capable of understanding and obeying. How important, 
then, is the study of physiology! For how can we expect 
to obey laws which we do not understand ? 


5. What do human anatomy and physiology describe P 6. What 
does comparative anatomy describe ? Give examples. 7. What does 
comparative physiology describe ? 8. What do vegetable anatomy 

and physiology describe ? 9. How are all bodies in nature divided ? 

What bodies are called organic ? What bodies are called inorganic ? 
10. Have all animals and plants a limited period of life ? Does this 
period vary with different species of animals and plants ? Give some 
examples. 11. How is life usually shortened? Is disease under the 
control of fixed laws ? Why is the study of physiology important to 
every person ? 



CHAPTER II. 


Jl 


V 


THE BONES. 

I 

12. The Bones are the frame of the body, having out¬ 
side of them the muscles (flesh) and skin. 

13. Their use is to support and protect other parts of the 
body, as the lungs, the liver, the brain, &,c. 

Illustration. The bones are to the body what the different 
pieces of timber are to a house — they not only give form 
and support to the building, but, like the bones, impart 
strength to the whole structure. 

14. There are two hundred and eight * bones in the 
human body, beside the teeth. 

15. These, for convenience, are divided into four parts : 
1 st. The bones of the Head. 2 d. The bones of the 
Trunk. 3d. The bones of the Upper Extremities. 4th. 
The bones of the Lower Extremities. 

16. The bones of the head are divided into those of the 
Skull, Ear , and Face. 

17. The bones of the skull are eight in number. These 
are joined together by ragged edges, called su'tures. 

* Some anatomists reckon more than this number, others less, for the 
reason that, at different periods of life, the number of pieces of which one 
bone is formed, varies. Example. The breast-bone, in infancy, has eight 
pieces ; in youth, three; in old age, but one. 


12. What are the bones ? 13. What is their use ? 14. How many 

bones in the human body ? 15. How are they divided ? Name them. 

16. How are the bones of the head divided ? 17*. How many bones 

in the skull ? How are the bones of the skull joined together ? 



12 


THE BONES. 


18. The sutures stop, in a measure, the jars caused by 
external blows. Children should never strike each other 
upon the head, because the bones of the skull in them 
are softer than in adults. 


Fig. 2. 



Fig. 2. The bones of the upper part of the skull, a, a, b, c, c, The 
sutures that join the bones. 

19. There are four very small bones in each ear. They 
aid in hearing. 

20. The number of bones in the face is fourteen. 

21. The trunk has fifty-four bones — twenty-four Ribs; 
twenty-four bones in the Spi'ncil Column , (back-bone ;) four 
in the Pelvis; the Ster'num, (breast-bone;) and one at the 
root of the tongue. 

22. All the Ribs are joined to the spinal column. There 
are twelve on each side. 


18. What is the use of sutures ? What does fig. 2 represent ? 19. 

How many bones in each ear ? What is their use ? 20. How many 

bones in the face ? 21. How many bones in the trunk ? Name them. 

22. To what are all the ribs joined ? How many on each side ? 



THE BONES. 


13 



23. The seven upper ribs are united in front to the ster¬ 
num, by a yielding substance called car'ti-lage* (gristle.) 
The remaining five are not attached, directly, to the sternum. 
1 hree are joined to each other by cartilage; two are not 
confined; hence they are called “ floating ribs.” 


Fig. 3. 



Fig. 3. 1,2, 3, The sternum, (breast-bone.) 4, 5, The spinal column, 

(back-bone.) 6, 7, 8, 9, The first rib. 10, The seventh rib. 11, The car¬ 
tilage of the third rib. 12, The floating ribs. 

24. The cavity formed by the sternum, ribs, and spinal 
column, is called the Chest. It contains the heart, lungs, 
and large blood-vessels. 

25. The shape of the chest is conical, or like a sugar-loaf. 

* See paragraph 57. 


23. How are the first seven ribs united in front? The next three? 
What are the last two called? Why? Describe fig. 3. 24. How is 
the chest formed? What does it contain? 25. What is the shape 
of the chest ? 


2 





14 


THE BONES. 


26. The lower part of the chest is broader and fuller than 
the upper part, when it is not made smaller by tight clothing. 

27. The Spinal* Column is composed of twenty-four 
pieces of bone. Each piece is called a ver'te-bra. 


Fig. 4. Fig. 5. 



3 


Fig. 4. The form of a vertebra of the neck. 1, The main portion of 
the bone. 2, The spinal canal, in which the spinal cord is placed. 4, 5, 
7, 8, Points, or projections of the vertebra. 

Fig. 5. 1, The cartilage that connects the vertebra. 3, 4, 5, 6, Points, 
or projections of the vertebra. 7, The spinal canal. 

28. Between the vertebrae is a thick piece of cartilage, 
which is elastic, or springs like India-rubber. This not only 
unites the vertebrae, but permits them to move in different 
ways. 

29. There is an opening in each vertebra. By a union 
of these openings, a canal is formed the whole length of the 
spinal column, in which the spinal cord (pith of the back¬ 
bone) is placed. 

Observation. A good idea of the structure of the vertebrae 

* From the Latin spi'na, a thorn; so called from the points of the ver- 
tebrse that are felt beneath the skin. 


26. How does the lower part of the chest compare in size with the 
upper? 27. Of how many pieces of bone is the spinal column com¬ 
posed? What is each piece called? Describe fig. 4 . Describe fiff. 
5. 28. What is placed between the vertebrae ? Give its use. 29. 

How is the spinal canal formed, and what does it contain ? How may 
an idea of the structure of the vertebrae be obtained ? 

r 




THE BONES. 


15 


\ 

may be obtained by examining the spinal column of a do¬ 
mestic animal, as the hog, dog, or cat. 

30. The spinal column is a very curious and perfect piece 
of mechanical art. By its structure, great strength and suf¬ 
ficient movement or flexibility are combined. The vertebrae 
are so firmly joined together, that dislocation of them, without 
fracture, is very rare. 


Fig. 6. 



Fig. 6. 1,1, The hip-bones. 2, The sacrum, upon which the spinal 
column rests. 3, The extremity of the back-bone, named the coc'cyx. 
4, 4, The cavities for the head of the thigh-bone. 

31. The Pelvis is composed of four bones. They are 
so arranged as to form a bony basin. The spinal column 
rests on these bones, and they also serve to support the lower 
extremities. 

32. In the sides of these bones is a deep, round cavity, 
called ac-e-tab'u-lum , in which the head of the thigh-bone 
is placed. 

33. There are sixty-four bones in the upper extremities — 
the Scap'u-la, (shoulder-blade,) the Clav'i-cle, (collar-bone,) 
and the bones of the arm, wrist, and hand. 


30. What is said of the structure of the spinal column ? Describe 
fig. 6. 31. Of how many bones is the pelvis composed? What is 
their use ? 32. What is found in the sides of these bones ? 33. 
Name the bones of the upper extremities. 



16 


THE BONES. 


34. The Scapula is a broad, irregular bone, situated 
upon the upper and back part of the chest. 

35. The Clavicle is a thin bone at the base of the neck. 
It is joined at one extremity to the sternum, at the other to 
the scapula. 



Fig. 7. v, The ulna. R, The radius. S, L, c, P, it, M, T, T, The eight 
bones of the wrist. 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, The five bones of the palm of the hand. 

Fig. 8. 10, 10, 10, The bones of the palm of the hand. 11, 12, 13, The 
bones of the fingers. 14, 15, The bones of the thumb. 

36. The use of the clavicle is to keep the arms from slid¬ 
ing towards the breast. Children should frequently throw 
their arms backward, as this exercise would tend to increase 
the length of this bone, and also to enlarge the chest. 

37. The long, round bone of the arm, between the shoul¬ 
der and elbow, is called the hu'mcr-us. 

38. The two bones between the elbow and wrist are called 
the ra'di-us and ul'na. By a beautiful arrangement of these 
bones, the hand is made to turn, or rotate , permitting its 

34. Describe the scapula. 35. Where is. the clavicle situated ? 
Describe fig. 7. What does fig. 8 represent ? 36. What is the use 

of the clavicle ? 37. Describe the humerus. 38. What are the names 

of the bones between the elbow and wrist ? What is said of the ar¬ 
rangement of these bones P 








THE BONES. 


17 


v 


x 


complicated and varied movements. Proofs of a designing 
Creator are nowhere more manifest than iii the simple but 
wonderful structure and adaptation of the human hand. 

39. The lower extremities contain sixty bones — the jFV- 
tmir, (thigh-bone;) the Pa-tcl'la , (knee-pan;) the Tib'i-a , 
(shin-bone;) the Fib'u-la , (small bone of the leg;) and the 
bones of the foot. 

40. The Femur is the longest bone of the body. It sup¬ 
ports the weight of the head, trunk, and upper extremities. 

41. The Tibia and the Fibula are situated between the 
knee and ankle. 

42. The foot is formed of twenty-six bones — seven in the 
instep, called Tar'sal bones; five Met-a-tar'sal, (the middle 
of the foot;) and fourteen toe-bones, called Pha-lan'ges. 

43. The bones of the foot are so united as to give it the 
form of an arch, — convex on its upper surface, and concave 
on the lower surface. (See fig. 10.) 

44. This structure gives to the foot the elasticity, or 
spring, which not only lessens the fatigue in walking, but pre¬ 
vents injury to the brain, heart, stomach, and other organs. 

45. The bones are formed of both animal and earthy 
matter. 

Experiment 1st. Take a bone and burn it in a clear fire 
a short time. On taking it out, it will look white, its weight 
will be found to be less, and it will break easily, because the 
fire has destroyed the gel'a-tin, (jelly,) or animal matter of 
the bone. 


39. How many bones in the lower extremities ? Name them. 40. 
Describe the femur. 41. What bones are situated between the knee 
and ankle ? 42. How many bones in the foot ? How many in the 

instep ? How many in the middle of the foot ? How many toe-bones ? 
43. What is the form of the foot P How does it appear on its upper 
surface ? Upon its lower surface ? 44. Of what utility is the arch of 

the foot ? 45. Of what are the bones formed ? How is it proved, by 

experiment 1st, that they contain earthy matter ? How, by the 2d ex¬ 
periment, that they contain animal matter? 

o * 

& 






18 


THE BONES. 


Experiment 2d. Take another bone, and immerse it in a 
weak acid, (one part of muriatic acid to six parts of water,) 
and let it remain a few days, and it can be knotted or easily 
cut without dulling the knife. In this experiment, the acid 
has removed the earthy matter, (carbonate and phosphate of 
lime,) while the gelatin remains. 


Fig. 9. 



Fig. 9. The upper surface of the bones of the foot. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ,6, 7, 8, 
The tarsal (instep) bones. 9, 9, The metatarsal bones. 10, 11, The bones 
of the great toe. 12, 13, 14, The bones of the small toes. 


Fig. 10. 



Fig. 10. A side view of the bones of the foot, showing its arched form. 
The arch rests upon the heel behind, and the ball of the toes in front. 1, 
The lower part of the tibia. 2, 3, 4, 5, Bones of the tarsus. 6, The met¬ 
atarsal bone. 7, 8, The bones of the great toe. These bones are so united 
by cartilages as to secure a great degree of elasticity, or spring. 

46. The bones of a child contain more of the animal 
than the earthy matter ; therefore they will bend before they 
will break. The bones of the aged man will sooner break 


46. Why do not a child’s bones break as soon as an aged person’s ? 




THE BONES, 


19 


than bend, because they contain more of the earthy than 
animal matter. 

Fig. 11. 



Fig. 11. 1, 1, The spinal column, on the top of which are the bones of 
the head. 2, 2, The ribs. 3, The sternum. 4, 4, The clavicle, (collar¬ 
bone.) 5, 5 , The humerus, (upper arm-bone.) 6, 6, The elbow. 7, 7, 
The radius. 8, 8, The ulna. 9, 9, The carpus, (wrist-bones.) 10, 10, 
The phalanges, (finger-bones.) 11, 11, The pelvis. 12, The sacrum. 13, 
13, The hip-joint. 14, 14, The femur, (thigh-bone.) 15, 15, The knee- 
joint. 16, 16, The fibula. 17, 17, The tibia, (shin-bone.) 18, 18, The 
ankle. 19, 19, The foot. 














20 


THE BONES. 


47. In middle age, the animal and the earthy matter exists 
in nearly the same proportions; hence the bones are fitted for 
labor, as they will not bend like the child’s, nor fracture like 
those of the aged man. 

48. The bones are covered with a firm mem'brane , or 
skin, called pei'-i-os'te-um. This membrane, like the bones, 
gives us but little pain if wounded when healthy; but if 
diseased, as in “ felons,” the pain is very severe. 

PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 

49. The ribs and bones of the spinal column are soft and 
yielding in childhood. A small amount of pressure upon the 
ribs will cause them to injure the lungs, stomach, and heart. 
For this reason, every article of clothing should be loosely 
worn. 

50. To prevent the bones of the spinal column becoming 
curved, every person should sit and stand erect. When a 
slight curvature of the spine exists, it can be improved by 
walking with a book, or a heavier weight, upon the top of the 
head; to balance which, the spine must be nearly erect. 
Those people that carry their burdens upon their heads sel¬ 
dom have crooked spines. 

51. A person should not stand with one hip elevated more 
than the other. But, when necessary to throw the weight of 
the body upon one limb, keep that limb firm. 

52. When a bone is fractured, the material that reunites 
it is deposited on the ends of the broken bone, by the blood¬ 
vessels. 

47. When are the bones best fitted for labor ? 48. With what 

are the bones covered? What is diseased when we have “felons”? 
49. Why should children wear loose clothing ? 50. Give a prevention 
for a curved spine. When there is a slight curvature, how can it be 
improved ? 51. Should persons stand with one hip elevated more than 
the other ? What suggestion when the weight of the body is thrown 
upon one limb ? 52. How is a broken bone healed ? 



THE BONES. 


21 


53. Some days elapse, after the bone is broken, before 
the substance that reunites it is thrown out from the blood. 

Fig. 12. 



54. In young persons, it may be done during the second 
or third week, and in individuals advanced in life, it is usually 
done during the third and fourth week. 

55. When the bone is uniting, during the second, third, or 
fourth week, the attention of a surgeon is more needed than 
during the first week. At that time, the ends of the bone 
should be placed together with accuracy. This requires the 
careful application of proper dressing. 


53. Is the reuniting substance thrown out immediately by the blood¬ 
vessels ? 54. Does the time vary with different persons ? 55. When 

is the surgeon's care most necessary ? 




CHAPTER III. 


THE JOINTS. 

56. The Joints are formed by the union of two or more 
bones. These are bound together by thin, glistening bands, 
called lig'a-ments. 

57. The end of the bone that forms a joint, is covered 
with a tough, elastic substance, capable of bearing very great 
pressure, without causing pain. 


Fig. 13. Fig. 14. 



Fig. 13. 8, 9, The ligaments that extend from the hip-bone (6) to the 
thigh-bone, (5.) 


Fig. 14. 2, 3, The ligaments that extend from the collar-bone (1) to the 
shoulder-blade, (4.) The ligaments 5, 6, extend from the shoulder-blade to 
the first bone of the arm. 


56. How are the joints formed ? What is shown by fig. 13 ? De¬ 
scribe fig. 14. 57. What is found at the end of a bone that forms a 
joint ? 







THE JOINTS. 


23 


58. This substance is called cartilage. It diminishes the 
jar that the joints receive. 

59. External to the cartilage is found a thin skin, or mem¬ 
brane. This passes from one bone to the other, and forms a 
closed sac. It contains a fluid called Sy-no'vi-a, (joint- 
water.) 

Observation. The joints of the domestic animals are sim¬ 
ilar in their construction to those of man. To illustrate this 
part of the body, a fresh joint of the calf or sheep may be 
used. 

60. This fluid is the oil of nature’s own preparing. Its 
use is to diminish the friction which attends the movements 
of different parts that form the joint. 


Fig. 15. Fig. 16. 



Fig. 15. The relative position of the bone, cartilage, and synovial mem¬ 
brane. a, a, The extremities of two bones, to form a joint, b, b, The 
cartilage that covers the end of the bone, c, c, c, c , e, c, The synovial 
membrane which covers the cartilage of both bones, and is then doubled 
back from one to the other ; it is represented by the dotted lines. 

Fig. 16. A vertical section of the knee-joint. 1, The thigh-bone. 3, 
The knee-pan. 5, The tibia. 2, 4, Ligaments of the knee-pan. 6, Car¬ 
tilage of the tibia. 12, The cartilage of the thigh-bone. * * * * The syno¬ 
vial membrane. 


58. What is it called ? Its use ? 59. What is found external to the 
cartilage? What does it contain? 60. What is its use? What is 
represented by fig. 15 ? What is represented by fig. 16 ? 















24 


THE JOINTS. 


61. There are two kinds of joints, the movable and the 
immovable. 

62. When the union of the bones permits them to move, 
the joint is called a movable joint; as the finger-joints. 

63. When bones are united, to secure firmness, the joints 
are called immovable joints; as the sutures of the skull. (Fig. 2.) 

64. The more movable a joint, the less firm it is, and 
the more frequently dislocated, or “ put out.” It is for this 
reason that the shoulder-joint is more frequently displaced 
than any other in the body. 

65. Some joints move but in one direction, like a hinge 
of a door. These are called Hinge Joints; as the ankle and 
the knee-joint. 



Fig. 17. 1, The lower extremity of the thigh-bone. 3, 5, The two 
rounded extremities that rest upon the upper extremity of the tibia, 
(shin-bone.) 2, Two ligaments within the knee-joint. 6, 7, The cartilage 
that tips the upper extremity of the shin-bone. 

Fig. 18. 2, The deep socket of the hip-joint. 5, The round head of 
the thigh-bone, which is lodged in the socket. 3, The ligament within 
the socket. 

61. How many kinds of joints are there? 62. Define a movable 
joint. 63. Define an immovable joint. 64. Are the most movable 
joints the firmest? Why is the shoulder-joint more frequently dis¬ 
placed than any other in the body ? 65. What are those joints called 

that move only in one direction ? Give examples. Describe fiff. 17. 
Describe fig. 18. & 






THE JOINTS. 


25 


66. The union of the spinal column with the skull ex¬ 
hibits one of the most ingenious contrivances to be met with 
in the body. 1st. It permits the backward and forward move¬ 
ment, as in bowing and nodding the head. 2d. The motion 
which is made in turning the head from side to side. 

67. This admirable piece of mechanism affords great pro¬ 
tection to the spinal cord, at the top of the neck; this being, 
perhaps, the most vital portion of the whole body. Injury to 
it, or pressure upon it, is instantly fatal. 

68. Some joints move in different directions, like a ball 
in a socket. These are called Ball and Socket Joints; as 
the shoulder and the hip-joint. 

PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 

69. When a bone has been displaced, it should be care¬ 
fully replaced, or “ set; ” and the injured joint should not be 
used until the swelling and pain begin to diminish. Then it 
may be rubbed and moved moderately. 

70. A sprained joint should never be used, while the swell¬ 
ing and pain continue to increase, if a stiff, unyielding joint 
would be avoided. 

71. The circulation of blood in the cartilage and liga¬ 
ments of the joints is feeble, and is easily influenced by chills 
upon the skin. This causes pain and stiffness of the joint. 

72. To prevent the chill, clothe the limbs with flannel. 
When a chill is contracted, immediately apply warm water, 
followed by vigorous rubbing. 

• - % - * 

66- What is said of the union of the spinal column with the skull P 
67. What is protected by this admirable piece of mechanism ? 68. 

What are those joints called that move in different directions ? Give 
examples. 69. How soon should an injured joint be used ? 70. What 
is said of sprained joints ? 71. What is said of the circulation of blood 

in the parts that form a joint ? What is the effect of chill upon a joint ? 
72. How relieved ? 

3 






CHAPTER IV. 


THE MUSCLES. 


73. A Muscle (lean flesh, or red meat) is composed of 
many little strings, called fibres. 

74. Some of these fibres run in straight lines; others 
spread like a fan; while some are inclined like the feathery 
part of a quill. 


Fig. 19. 



Fig. 19. 1, Represents the fibres of a muscle running in straight lines. 
2, The fan-shaped fibres. 3, 4, Fibres inclined like the plumes of a quill. 
t, t, Tendons at the extremities of the muscle, 1. 

75. Towards the extremities of a muscle the. fibres unite, 
and form a substance of a whitish color, harder and tougher 
than the muscle. This is called tcn'don, (cord, sinew.) 

Observation. The pupil can examine a piece of boiled 
beef, or the leg of a fowl, and see the structure of the fibres 
and tendons of a muscle, with the attachment of the tendons 
to the bones. 

73. What is a muscle? 74. How do these fibres run? What is 
shown by fig. 19 ? 75. Describe a tendon. 








THE MUSCLES. 


27 


76. Tendons have various shapes. Sometimes they are 
long, slender strings; sometimes they are short and thick; 
again, in some situations, they are thin and broad. 

77. The use of tendons is to fasten the muscles to the 
bones, or to each other. 

Illustration. The muscles and tendons are to the bones 
what the ropes are to the sails and yards of a ship. By their 
action, the direction of the sails and yards is changed. So, 
by the action of the muscles, the position of the bones of the 
body is changed. 

78. There are more than four hundred muscles in the hu¬ 
man body. To these, and a yellow substance called fat, that 
surrounds and fills the spaces in the muscles, the child and 
youth are indebted for the roundness and beauty of their 
limbs. 

Observation. When we are sick, and cannot take food, 
the body is fed with this fat. The removal of it into the 
blood causes the sunken cheek, hollow eye, and prominent 
appearance of the bones after a severe sickness. 

79. In some parts of the body, there is but one layer of 
muscle over the bones; in other parts, there are five or six 
layers, one muscle being placed over another. 

80. In general, they form about the bones two layers, 
called the superficial or external muscles; and the deep-seat¬ 
ed, or those nearest the bone. 

81. When we look at this “harp of thousand strings,” 
and notice the varied, rapid, complicated, yet accurate move¬ 
ments it performs in a single day, our thoughts are lost in 


76. What is the shape of tendons ? 77. What is their use P Give 
an illustration. 78. How many muscles in the human body ? Why are 
the limbs of a child more round and full than an aged person’s ? How 
is the body nourished when we cannot take food ? What does the re¬ 
moval of it cause ? 79. How many layers of muscle are there around 

the bones ? 80. How many layers generally ? What are they called ? 




28 


THE MUSCLES. 


wonder, in contemplating this superb and intricate machine, 
framed and finished by the divine Architect. 

82. Every motion of the body is made by the contracting 
or shrinking of the fibres of the muscles; from the awkward 
movement of the boy’s first effort at penmanship, to the deli¬ 
cate and graceful sweeps of the pianist; from the firm, state¬ 
ly tread of the soldier, to the light, fairy-like step of the 
danseuse. 

83. Muscles remain contracted but a short time; then 
they relax, or lengthen, which is their rest. When the mus¬ 
cles are in a state of contraction, they are full, hard, and 
more prominent than when relaxed. 



Fig. 20. 1, The bone of the arm above the elbow. 2, One of the bones 
below the elbow. 3, The muscle that bends the elbow. This muscle is 
united, by a tendon, to the bone below the elbow, (4;) at the other extrem¬ 
ity, to the bone above the elbow, (5.) 7, A weight in tl^e hand, to be raised. 
The central part of the muscle (3) contracts, and its two ends are brought 
nearer together. The bones below the elbow are brought to the lines shown 
by * * *. The weight is raised in the direction of the curved line. In this 
manner all the joints of the system are moved. 

84. The eyebrows are elevated or raised by the contrac¬ 
tion of the muscles on the forehead, 1, fig. 21. 

82. How is every motion of the body produced ? 83. Do muscles 
remain contracted a long time ? Describe fig. 20. [With figs. 21 and 
22 before the pupil, let the uses of the different muscles be given, as 
explained by the twenty-three following paragraphs.] 
















THE MUSCLES. 


29 


85. The eyes are closed by the contraction of the mus¬ 
cles that surround them, 2, fig. 21. 

86. The upper lip is elevated by the contraction of the 
muscles, 3, 4, 5, 6, fig. 21. 

87. The mouth is closed by the contraction of a muscle 
that surrounds it, 7, fig. 21. 

88. The lower lip is drawn down, or depressed, by the 
contraction of muscles on the lower part of the face, 8, fig. 21. 

89. The head is bent forward, as in nodding, by the con¬ 
traction of muscles on the front part of the neck, 9, fig. 21. 

90. The chin is raised, and the head is brought erect by 
the contraction of muscles on the back part of the neck, 5,6, 
fig. 22. 

91. The body is bent forward, and the ribs brought down, 
by the contraction of muscles on the front and lower part of 
the trunk, 22, 23, fig. 21. 

92. The muscles at the lower and back part of the trunk, 
keep the spinal column erect, 24, 25, 26, fig. 22. 

93. The muscles upon the upper and front part of the 
chest, bring the shoulders forward, 11, fig. 21. 

94. The shoulders are brought back by the contraction 
of the muscles upon the upper and back part of the chest, 7, 
fig. 22. 

95. The arm is elevated by a muscle upon the shoulder, 
10, fig. 21; and 8, fig. 22. 

96. The arm is brought to the side by muscles, 11, fig. 21; 
and 24, fig. 22. 

97. The elbow is bent by the contraction of the muscles 
on the upper and front side of the arm, 14, fig. 21. 

98. The elbow is extended by a muscle on the back 
part of the arm, 10, fig. 22. 

99. The wrist and fingers are bent by the muscles on 
the front part of the arm, below the elbow, 16, 18, fig. 21. 

3 * 


30 


THE MUSCLES. 


I 


* 


\ 



I 


v 






































































31 


THE MUSCLES. 

/ 

























































































































32 


THE MUSCLES. 


100. The muscles on the back part of the arm, below the 
elbow, extend the wrist and fingers, 21, 22, 23, fig. 22. 

101. The muscles that bend the lower limbs, at the hip, 
are situated at the lower and front part of the trunk, and the 
upper and front part of the thigh, 25, 26, 27, 28, fig. 21. 

102. The lower limbs are extended at the hips by the 
muscles on the lower and back part of the trunk, and the 
upper and back part of the thigh, 27, 28, fig. 22. 

103. The muscles upon the front part of the thigh extend 
the leg at the knee, 29, 30, fig. 21. 

104. The knee is bent by the muscles upon the back part 
of the thigh, 29, 30, fig. 22. 

105. The muscles upon the fore part of the leg, below 
the knee, bend the foot at the ankle, and extend the toes, 
34, 35, 36, fig. 21. 

106. The muscles upon the back part of the leg, below 
the knee, extend the foot at the ankle, and bend the toes, 31, 
32, 33, fig. 22. 

Observation. It would be a profitable exercise for pupils 
to press their fingers upon prominent muscles, and at the 
same time, vigorously contract them, not only to learn their 
situations, but their use; as the one that bends the arm, 14, 
fig. 21. 

PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 

107. Every muscle should be used and then rested. This 
will increase their size and strength, by increasing the flow 
of blood to the parts called into action. 

108. A muscle should not be used too long, or remain at 
rest too long; both are alike injurious. 

Illustrations. 1st. The blacksmith uses and rests the mus¬ 
cles of his arm when striking upon the anvil. They not only 
become large, but very firm and hard. 

107. Should muscles be used ? Why ? 108. Can muscles be used 
too long ? Give illustrations. 



THE MUSCLES. 


33 


2d. The student uses the muscles of the arm but little, in 
holding his books and pen; they not only become small, but 
soft. 

3d. Let the student leave his books, and pound heated 
iron, and the muscles of his arm will increase in size and 
firmness. On the other hand, let the blacksmith assume the 
student’s vocation, and the muscles of his arm will become 
soft and less firm. 

109. The muscles should he used in pure air. The purer 
the air we breathe, the longer can the muscles be used in 
labor, walking, or sitting, without fatigue and injury ; hence 
the benefit derived in thoroughly ventilating mechanics’ shops. 

110. If the air of the sick-room is pure, the patient will 
sit up longer than when the air is impure. 

Observation. It is a common remark that a sick person 
will sit up longer when riding in a carriage, than in an easy 
chair in the room where they have lain sick. In the one 
instance, they breathe the pure air of heaven; in the other, 
usually, a confined, impure air. 

111. The muscles should he exercised in the light. Light, 
particularly that of the sun, exercises as great an influence 
on man and the inferior animals as it does on plants. Both 
require the stimulus of this agent. Students should take 
their exercise during the day, rather than in the evening. 

112. Shops occupied by mechanics, kitchens, and sitting- 
rooms, should be well lighted, and located on the sunny side 
of the house. Cellar kitchens and under-ground shops should 
be avoided. 

Illustrations. Plants that grow in the shade, as under a 

109. Should the muscles be used in pure air? Why? 110. What 
is said of sick persons ? Give an illustration. Why the difference ? 
111. Does the light exercise an influence upon the muscular system ? 
When should students take exercise ? 112. What suggestion relative 

to the situation of sitting-rooms, kitchens, and other rooms occupied 
during the day ? 



34 


THE MUSCLES. 


board, are of lighter color and more feeble than those that 
are exposed to the light of the sun. Persons that dwell in 
dark rooms are paler and less vigorous than those who inhabit 
apartments well lighted, and exposed to the rays of the sun. 

113. Every muscle should move freely. Compression by 
any means, lessens the size and strength of the muscle. 

Illustration. Let a surgeon bandage a limb for some weeks, 
when a bone is broken, and when the bandage is removed, 
the limb will be found smaller than when the accident oc¬ 
curred. The compression by close dresses produces similar 
effects upon the muscles of the body. 


Fig. 23. 



Fig. 23. An injurious position in sitting. 


113. Should every muscle move freely ? Why? Give an illustra¬ 
tion. What effect have close dresses upon the muscles of the bodv ? 
What does fig. S3 show ? J ' 








THE MUSCLES. 


35 


114. In speaking , reading , singing , and recitation , the 
body and head should be erect. In this position, the parts 
called into action will be more under the control of the per¬ 
son, and can be used a longer time without fatigue, than in 
the position represented by fig. 23. 

115. A person will stand longer, walk farther, and do 
more work when erect, than in a stooping posture; because 
the muscles of the back, in stooping, are in a state of tension, 
or stretching, to keep the head and trunk from falling for¬ 
wards. In the erect position, the head and trunk are nicely 
balanced and supported by the bones of the spinal column, 
and the muscles of the back are called but slightly into 
action. 


Fig. 24. 



Fig. ^4. The proper position in sitting. 


114. What should be the position of the body when we are speak¬ 
ing, reading, and reciting P Why ? 115. Why will a person walk 

farther, and do more work, when erect than in a stooping posture ? 
What is shown by fig. 24 ? 



36 


THE MUSCLES. 


Experiment. Hold in each hand a pail of water, or equal 
weights, in a stooping posture, as long as it can be done with¬ 
out much suffering and injury. Again, when the muscular 
pain has ceased, hold the same pails of water, for the same 
length of time, in an erect posture, and note the difference in 
the fatigue of the muscles. 

116. While studying, drawing, writing, and sewing, the 
body should be kept erect. Narrow chests, “hollow stom¬ 
achs,” “ round shoulders,” and ill health, follow a violation 
of this rule. 

117. The state of the mind affects muscular contraction. 
A person who is cheerful and happy will do more work, and 
with less fatigue, than one who is peevish and unhappy. 

118. When the muscular system has been in a state of 
rest, it should not suddenly be called into vigorous action. 
On arising from a bed, lounge, or chair, the first movements 
of the limbs should be slow, and then, if necessary, gradually 
increased. 

Observation. If a man has a certain amount of work to be 
performed in nine hours, and his muscles have been in a 
state of rest, he will do it with less fatigue by performing half 
the amount of the labor in five hours, and the remainder in 
four hours. 

119. The same principles should be regarded in driving 
horses and other beasts of burden. 

120. When the muscles have been vigorously used, they 
should be rested gradually. 

121. If a person has been making great muscular exer¬ 
tion in cutting wood, or any other employment, instead of 


Give an experiment. 116. What is one cause of narrow chests 
and round shoulders ? 117. Does the state of the mind affect mus¬ 
cular contraction ? 118. What caution is given in using the muscles 

when they have been some time in a state of rest P Give an ob¬ 
servation. 119. Should this principle be observed in driving horses ? 
120. How should the muscles be rested when they have be°en ealled 
into vigorous aetion ? 




THE MUSCLES. 


37 


sitting down to rest, he should continue muscular action by 
some moderate labor. 

122. When the skin is covered with perspiration from 
muscular action, avoid sitting down “ to cool ” in a current 
of air ; rather put on more clothing, and continue to exercise 
moderately. 

123. In cases when severe action of the muscles has been 
endured, bathing and rubbing the skin over the joints that 
have been used, are of much importance. By reducing to 
practice the foregoing suggestions, soreness of the muscles 
and stiffness of the joints will be prevented. 

124. In jumping or falling from a carriage, or any height, 
the shock to the organs of the system may be obviated in the 
three following ways. 1st. Let the muscles be relaxed , not 
rigid. 2d. Let the limbs be bent at the ankle, knee, and 
hips; the head should be thrown slightly forward, with the 
trunk a little stooping. 3d. Fall upon the toes, not the heel. 

Experiments. Stand with the trunk and lower limbs firm, 
and the muscles rigid; then jump a few inches perpendicu¬ 
larly to the floor, and fall upon the heels. Again, slightly 
bend the limbs, jump a few inches, and fall upon the toes, 
and the difference in the force of the shock, to the brain and 
other organs, will be readily noticed. 

125. In walking, dancing, and learning to write, there 
will be less fatigue, and the movements will be more grace¬ 
ful, when the muscles are slightly relaxed, than when rigidly 
contracted. The same principle applies to most of the me¬ 
chanical employments. 


122. When the skin is covered with perspiration from muscular 
action, how should it be “cooled”? 123. How can stiffness of the 
muscles be prevented? 124. In jumping from a carriage, in how 
many ways can the shock to the body be obviated? Give the 1st. 
Give the 2d. Give the 3d. Give experiments. 125. In what state 
should the muscles of the arm be when we are writing, or performing 
most employments ? 

4 



38 


THE MUSCLES. 


Experiments . Attempt to bow with the muscles of the 
limbs and trunk rigid, and there will be a stiff bending of the 
body only at the hip-joint. On the other hand, attempt to 
bow with the muscles moderately relaxed; the ankle, the 
knee, and the hip-joint will slightly bend, producing an easy 
and graceful curve of the body. 

126. When riding in cars and coaches, the system will 
not suffer so severely from the jar if the muscles are slightly 
relaxed. When riding over uneven places in roads, rising 
slightly upon the feet diminishes the shock occasioned by the 
sudden motion of the carriage. The muscles, under such 
circumstances, are to the body what elastic springs are to 
a carriage. 

127. To render the action of the muscles complete and 
effective, they must be called into action repeatedly and at 
proper intervals. This education must be continued until 
not only each muscle, but every fibre of the muscle, is fully 
under the control of the will. In this way persons become 
expert penmen, dancers, singers, and skilful in every em¬ 
ployment. 

128. In training the muscles for effective action, it is 
very important that correct movements be adopted at the 
commencement. If this is neglected, much power and skill 
will be lost by acquiring improper and constrained move¬ 
ments. 

Illustration. If a boy, while learning to mow, is allowed to 
swing his scythe in a stooping position, twisting his body at 
every sweep of the scythe, he will never become an easy, 
efficient mower. Proper instruction is as necessary in many 
of the agricultural branches as in the varied mechanical em¬ 
ployments. 

Give experiments. 126. What remark is given when riding in 
cars and coaches ? 127. How is muscular action rendered complete 
and effective ? How do persons become skilful in any employment ? 
128. What is necessary in the early education of the muscles P Give 
an illustration. 



CHAPTER V. 


THE TEETH. 


129. The Teeth are firmly fixed in the sockets of the 
upper and lower jaw. 

130. The first set, which appear in infancy, is called 
tem'po-rctrry, or milk teeth. They are twenty in number; 
ten in each jaw. 


Fig. 25. 



Fig. 25. The permanent teeth of the upper and lower jaw. a, b, The in¬ 
cisors. c, The cuspids, d, e, The bicuspids, f, g, The molars, (double 
teeth.) A, The wisdom teeth. 

131. Between six and fourteen years of age, the temporary 


129. In what are the teeth placed? 130. What is the first set 
called? How many in number? Describe fig. 25. 131. When are 

these teeth removed ? 



40 


THE TEETH. 


teeth are removed, and the second set appears, called perma¬ 
nent teeth. They number thirty-two, sixteen in each jaw. 

132. The four front teeth in each jaw are called in-ci'sors , 
(cutting teeth;) the next tooth on each side, the cus'pid 
(eye tooth;) the next two, bi-cus'pids , (small grinders;) 
the next two, mo'lars , (grinders.) The last one on each side 
of the jaw is called a wisdom tooth , because it does not ap¬ 
pear until a person is dbout twenty years old. 


Fig. 26. Fig. 27. 



Fig. 26. A side view of the body and enamel of a front tooth. 

Fig. 27. A side view of a molar tooth. 1, The enamel. 2, The body of 
the tooth. 3, The cavity in the crown of the tooth. 4, A nerve that 
spreads in the pulp of the tooth. 5, An artery that ramifies in the pulp 
of the tooth. 

133. Each tooth is divided into two parts; namely, crown 
and root. 

134. The crown is that part which protrudes from the 
jaw-bone and gum. The root, or “ fang,” is placed in the 
sockets of the jaw. 

135. The incisors, cuspids, and bicuspids, have each but 

What is the second set called? How many in each jaw? 132. 
What are the teeth in front called ? The next ? The next two ? 
Those next the bicuspids ? The last that appear in the jaw ? De¬ 
scribe fig. 27. 133. How is each tooth divided ? 134. Which part 

of the tooth is the crown? Which the root? 135. What teeth have 
each but one root ? 




THE TEETH. 


41 


one root. The molars of the upper jaw have three roots, 
while those of the lower jaw have but two. 'Fig. 25. 

136. The crowns of the teeth are covered with a very 
hard substance, called en-am'el. The roots consist of bony 
matter. 

137. Through the bony substance several small vessels 
pass, to aid in the growth and also in the removal of the 
tooth. 

138. There are, beside these vessels, small white cords 
passing to each tooth, called nerves. (See fig 27.) When 
these nerves are diseased, we have the toothache. 

Observation. It is not always necessary to have teeth ex¬ 
tracted when they ache. The nerve may be diseased, and 
the tooth still be sound. 

139. On the banks of the Genesee River there are many 
nicely-arranged mills for making flour. When the wheat is 
ground, a peculiar apparatus takes the ground kernels and 
separates the flour from the coarse part of the grain. But 
there is a more beautiful mill in the human system, that 
grinds the food; and then, by a peculiar apparatus in the 
body, the waste or innutritious part is separated from the 
nutritious portion. (See Chap. VI.) 

140. The teeth are not only useful in chewing our food, 
but aid in speaking our words distinctly. 

PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 

141. Care should be taken in childhood, that the milk 
teeth be removed as soon as they become loose, in order that 


What is the difference between the molars of the upper jaw and those 
of the lower jaw? 136. With what are the crowns of the teeth cov¬ 
ered ? Of what do the roots consist ? 137. What is the use of the 

vessels that pass through the roots of the teeth ? 138. What causes 

a tooth to ache ? Give an observation. 140. Of what use are the 
teeth ? 141. Why should the milk teeth be removed as soon as loose ? 

4 * 




42 


THE TEETH. 


the second set of teeth may present a regular and beautiful 
appearance. 

142. If the teeth are crowded and irregular, in conse¬ 
quence of the jaw being narrow and short, remove one or 
more, to prevent their looking unsightly and irregular. In a 
few months, the remaining teeth, with a little care, will fill 
the spaces. 

143. When they press so hard upon each other as to in¬ 
jure the enamel, one or more should be removed. 

144. To preserve the teeth, they must he kept clean. Af¬ 
ter eating food, they should be cleaned with a soft brush and 
water, or rubbed with a piece of soft flannel, to prevent the 
tartar collecting, and to remove the pieces of food that may 
have lodged between them. 

145. It is well to use refined soap, once or twice every 
week, to remove any corroding substance that may exist 
around the teeth. 

146. Food or drink should not be taken into the mouth 
when very hot or very cold. Sudden changes of temperature 
will crack the enamel, and, finally, produce decayed teeth. 

Observation. When it is necessary to have decayed teeth 
filled, it is better for the health of the person and durability 
of the teeth to have them filled with gold foil. 

147. Healthy persons have generally sound teeth, while 
feeble persons have decayed teeth. For this reason, we 
should try to learn and practise the few simple rules that 
give us health. 


142. What suggestion when the teeth are crowded and irregular? 
143. When they press too hard upon the enamel? 144. How can the 
teeth be preserved ? How often should they be cleaned ? 145. What 

may be used once or twice a week to remove any corroding substance ? 
146 Why should we not drink hot drinks or eat hot food ? Give an 
observation. 147. What is one reason for preserving good health ? 



CHAPTER VI. 


THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 


148. The Digestive Organs are those that change the 
food we eat, so that it may be passed into the blood-vessels. 

149. These organs are the Teeth, Sal'i-va-ry Glands * 
CE-sopk'a-gus, (gullet,) Stom'ach, Liv'er, Pan'cre-as, (sweet¬ 
bread,) small and large In-tes'tines, (bowels,) Lac'te-al Ves¬ 
sels, and Tho-rac'ic Duct. 


Fig. 28. 



Fig. 28. 1, A gland behind the jaw and below the ear, ( pa-rot'id .) 2, 

Its duct through which the saliva flows into the mouth. 3, A gland within 
the lower jaw, (sub-max'il-la-ry.) 4, Its duct. 5, A gland situated under 
the tongue, ( sub-lin’gual .) 

* See Secretion. 


148. What is the use of the digestive organs ? 149. Name them. 






44 


TIIE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 


150. The first change in the food is made in the mouth, 
by the teeth, and the sa-li'va (spittle) from the salivary glands. 

Observation . In the disease called “ mumps,” the parot¬ 
id gland is affected; the sublingual gland is diseased in the 
swelling under the tongue, called the “ frog.” 

151. The (Esophagus is a tube through which the food 
and drink pass into the stomach. It is situated behind the 
tra'che-a, (windpipe,) and in front of the upper part of the 
spinal column. 

152. In swallowing, the food is pressed by the contrac¬ 
tion of the muscles 5, 6, 7, into the pha'rynx, (the upper part 
of the gullet.) From the pharynx it is carried into the cesop 11- 


Fig. 29. 



. 29. A side view of the face,, oesophagus, and trachea. 1, 2, The 

trachea (windpipe) and larynx. 3, The oesophagus. 4, 4, 4, The mAscles 
of the upper portion of the oesophagus, forming the pharynx. 5 The 
muscles of the cheek. 6, The muscles that surround the mouth. 7, The 

muscle that forms the floor of the mouth. ‘ 

150. Where is the first change in the food made ? 151 What is the 

oesophagus? Where is it situated? What does fig 29 represent 
152. Describe the parts that are called into action in swallowing food. 







THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 


45 


agus, by the contraction of the muscles 4, 4, 4, and through 
that tube into the stomach. 

Observation. The process of swallowing, or deglutition, 
is easily observed, when a person passes either liquid or solid 
food into the stomach. 

153. The Stomach is in the left side of the body, below 
the lungs and heart. (Fig. 46.) It is curved like a Scotch 
bag-pipe. 

154. The coats or sides of the stomach are thin and 
yielding. On the inner side, there are many small glands, 
which secrete a fluid called gas'tric juice. 


Fig. 30. 



Fig. 30. The inner surface of the stomach and du-o-de'num. 1, The low¬ 
er portion of the oesophagus. 2, The opening through which the food is 
passed into the stomach. 3, The stomach. 9, The opening through which 
the food passes out of the stomach into the duodenum, or upper portion 
of the intestines. 10,11,14, The duodenum. 12,13, Ducts through which 
bile and pancreatic fluid pass into it. a, b, c, The three coats of the stom¬ 
ach; external, se'rom ; middle, mus'cu-lar ; inner, mu'cous. 


153. Where is the stomach situated? What does it resemble in 
shape? 154. What is said of the coats of the stomach? What is 
found on their inner surface? What does fig. 30 represent? 



46 


THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 


155. The Duodenum (called by nurses the second stom¬ 
ach) is the most essential part of the small intestines. It is 
about twelve inches in length, and commences at the lower 
orifice of the stomach. 

156. The Liver is in the right side of the body, below 
the right lung. (Fig. 46.) From the liver there flows into 
the duodenum a yellow, bitter fluid, called bile, (gall.) 

Observation. The bile does not flow into the healthy 
stomach. With many persons, the imagination is bilious , 
not the stomach. 

157. The Pancreas is situated behind and below the 
stomach. (Fig. 32.) From it there flows a fluid into the 
duodenum, called pan-cre-at'ic juice. 

158. We will now notice another change in the food. 
The coats of the stomach contract, and the food is moved 
around, while, at the same time, the gastric juice mixes with 
it, forming a soft, pulpy substance, called chyme. 

159. This pulpy, grayish substance is passed into the 
duodenum, and, by the action of the bile and pancreatic 
juice, it is changed into two parts; — a milk-like substance, 
called chyle ; and re-sid'u-um, or waste matter. 

160. The chyle and residuum pass from the duodenum 
into the remaining portion of the small intestines, and are 
moved along by a worm-like action of its parts. 

161. As these two substances are moved along the in¬ 
testines, the chyle is sucked up by minute vessels, that pass 
through the small intestines, and the residuum is carried into 
the large intestines. 


155. What is the first of the small intestines called ? Where does 
it commence ? 156. Where is the liver situated ? What fluid flows 

from it ? Give an observation. 157. Where is the pancreas? What 
fluid flows from it ? 158. Where is the second change in the food 
effected ? How is it done ? 159. What becomes of this pulpy sub¬ 
stance ? What change is effected in the duodenum ? 160. Where 

do the chyle and residuum then pass? 161. What becomes of the 
chyle ? Of the residuum ? 



THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 


47 


16*2. The minute vessels that pass through the intestines, 
are called lacteal, (milk-vessels.) 

Fig. 31. 



Fig. 31. A portion of the small intestines, lacteal vessels, mesenteric 
glands, and thoracic duct. 1, The intestine. 2, 3, 4, Mesenteric glands, 
through which the lacteals pass to the thoracic duct. 5, 6, The thoracic duct. 
7, The point in the neck where it turns down to enter the vein at 8. 9, 
10, The aorta. 11, 12, Vessels of the neck. 13, 14, 15, The large veins 
that convey the blood and chyle to the heart. 17, 17, The spinal column. 
18, The diaphragm, (midriff.) 


162. What is the name of the minute vessels that pass through the 
intestines? Describe fig. 31. 









48 


THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 


163. The lacteals are very numerous, and each vessel 
passes through a small gland, called mes-en-tcr'ic . 

164. From the lacteals and mesenteric glands, the chyle 
is poured into the thoracic duct. 

165. The Thoracic Duct commences behind the liver, 
and ascends in front of the spinal column. At the lower part 
of the neck, it turns downward and forward, and pours its 
contents into the vein behind the collar-bone. (8, fig. 31.) 

166. The Colon and Rectum, or the divisions of the 
large intestines, are five or six feet in length, while the small 
intestines are about twenty-five feet in length. They carry 
the waste matter from the system. 

Observation. A good idea of the liver and intestines can 
be obtained by examining these parts of a pig. In this 
animal, the sacs or pouches of the intestines are well defined. 

167. Let the pupil, from fig. 32, give the following reca¬ 
pitulation of the changes that the food undergoes, before it is 
made into blood. 

168. 1st. It is changed in the mouth, by the action of 
the teeth and saliva. 

169. 2d. By the action of the stomach and gastric juice 
it is changed into a pulpy mass, called chyme. 

170. 3d. In the duodenum, the bile and pancreatic juice 
change the chyme into chyle and residuum. 

171. 4th. By the action of the lacteal vessels and thoracic 
duct, the chyle'is poured into a vein behind the collar-bone, 
and passes through the heart to the lungs ; here, by the action 
of the air, it becomes blood. (See Chap. VIII.) 

163. Are they numerous ? Through what do they pass beside the 
coats of the intestines ? 164. Where is the chyle poured from the 

lactea 1 vessels ? 165. Where does the thoracic duct commence ? 

Where does the chyle, or changed food, mix with the blood ? 166 

What is the length of the large intestines ? Of the small intestines ? 
Ib7. By the aid of fig. 32, recapitulate the changes that the food un¬ 
dergoes, from its introduction into the mouth until it enters the veins 
to ba mixed with the blood. * 




THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 


49 



Fig. 32. 


Fig. 32. A view of the organs of digestion, opened nearly the whole 
length. 1, The upper jaw. 2, The lower jaw. 3, The tongue. 4, The 
roof of the mouth. 5, 5, 5, The oesophagus. 6, The trachea. 7, The 
parotid gland. 8, The sublingual gland. 9, The stomach. 10, 10, The 
liver. 11, The gall cyst. 12, The duct that conveys the bile to the duo¬ 
denum, (13, 13.) 14, The pancreas. 1-5, 15, 15, 15, The small intestine. 

16, The opening of the small intestine into the large intestine. 17, 18, 19, 
20, The large intestine. 21, The spleen. 

5 


















50 


the digestive organs. 


PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 

172. There are three reasons for taking food. 1st. The 
child that is growing requires ft, to promote the growth of 
the bones, muscles, skin, and other parts of the body; con¬ 
sequently, at that age, more food is needed than when the 
growth of the system has ceased. 

173. 2d. Food is necessary to repair the waste which 
attends the functions of the different organs. The waste is 
greatest when we exercise most. For this reason, when a 
person changes from an active employment to one less active 
in character, the food should be diminished in nearly the same 
degree that the exercise is lessened. 

Observations. When the girl leaves the active household 
employments for the shop of the dress-maker, — when the 
boy leaves the farm for the school-room, — the amount of food 
should be diminished as soon as the sedentary employment is 
commenced; for, under such circumstances, the appetite will 
not guide correctly. 

174. 3d. The food aids in supporting the warmth of the 
body. This is the reason why the appetite for food is keener 
in the winter than in the summer. The system requires more 
food in cold than in hot weather. 

Observations. 1st. Well-clothed children require less food 
in cold weather than those thinly clad. 2d. Flocks and herds 
that are sheltered in winter, will eat one third less than if 
exposed to the inclemency of the weather; hence it is true 
economy to keep the inferior animals warm, as well as children. 

175. The coats of the stomach are distensible. This 
organ may contain two or three pints; or it will contract, 
and hold but a gill. 

172. What is the first reason for taking food ? 173. The second ? 
When is the waste greatest ? When should the amount of food be 
lessened ? Give observations. 174. What is the third reason ? When 
does the body require the^mopt food ? 175. What is said of the dis¬ 

tensible properly of the stomach ? 



THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 


51 


176. Food, to be suited to the wants of the system, should 
contain nutritious and innutritious matter — nutritious, to 
promote the growth and repair the waste of the system; and 
innutritious, to distend both the stomach and intestines. 

Observation. Hot flour bread, rich pies, and jellies, are 
not so good articles for foed, as the unbolted wheat bread, 
ripe fruits and berries. 

177. Chyle of a more stimulating and nutritious charac¬ 
ter, is made from animal than from vegetable food. Therefore 
the former is more suitable to cold than to warm weather. 

Observation. By abstaining from meats and stimulating 
drinks in warm weather, and living on a simple diet, the 
“ season” or bowel complaints may be, in a great degree, 
prevented. 

178. As the glands about the mouth supply a fluid to 
soften the food, it is not necessary to use drinks of any kind 
while eating. After eating , a small quantity may be taken 
without injury to the digestion of the food. 

Observation. Were it customary not to place the drink 
on the table until the solid food was eaten, the evil arising 
from drinking too much at meals would be obviated. 

179 The salivary glands, like the muscles, require to be 
used, and then rested; hence the chewing of “gum” and 
tobacco is highly injurious, because continued action of the 
glands exhausts their power, not to mention the narcotic 
effects of tobacco upon the body. 

180. Food ought to be chewed slowly, in order that the 
saliva may become well mixed with it, before entering the 
second stage of digestion* 


176. What should the different articles of food contain ? The use 
of the nutritious matter ? Of the innutritious ? Give an observation. 
177. From what kind of food is the most stimulating chyle made? 
Which is best adapted to warm weather? 178. What is the function 
of the glands about the mouth ? When may a small quantity of drink 
he taken and not injure digestion ? 179. Why is it injurious to chew 

gum and tobacco? 180. Why should the food be chewed slowly? 



52 


THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 


181. The stomach has more strength to digest food when 
the system is not exhausted. Therefore severe exercise im¬ 
mediately before and after eating should be avoided. 

182. In all instances, when the system is much exhausted, 
but little food, and that of a simple character, should be 
taken; as in this condition the strength of the stomach is 
diminished as much as that of the system. 

183. Food should not be eaten immediately before retiring 
for sleep, as it will remain in the stomach an undue length 
of time, causing irritation of the body and disturbed sleep. 

184. The effect of thus violating a law of health may be 
illustrated by an anecdote. A healthy farmer, who was in 
the habit of eating one fourth of a mince pie immediately 
before going to bed, became annoyed with unpleasant dreams, 
and, among the varied images of his fancy, he saw that of his 
deceased father. Becoming alarmed, he consulted a physi¬ 
cian, who, after a patient hearing of the-case, gravely advised 
him to eat half of a mince pie, assuring him that he would 
then see his grandfather. 

185. If a person breathes pure air, the appetite will be 
keener, and the digestive organs more vigorous, than when 
impure air is inhaled. In the one case, the stomach is stim¬ 
ulated by pure blood, and in the other by impure blood. 
(See Chap. VIII.) 

Illustrations. 1st. Dr. Reid, in his work on “ Ventilation 
of Rooms,” relates that an inn-keeper in London, when he 
provided a public dinner, always spread his tables in an under¬ 
ground room, with low walls. He assigned as a reason for 
so doing, that his guests consumed only one third as much 
food and wine as if the tables were laid in the open air. 

181. Why should we not exercise severely immediately before or 
after eating ? 182. When the system is exhausted, how much food 

should be taken, and what kind ? 183. Why should not food be eaten 

immediately before retiring for sleep? 184. Illustrate the ill effect of 
thus taking food by an anecdote. 185. Has pure air any effect on 
digestion ? Give an illustration by Dr. Reid. 




THE DIGESTIVE OltGANS. 


53 


2d. A manufacturer stated before a committee of the 
British parliament, that he removed an arrangement for ven¬ 
tilating his mill, because he noticed that his men ate much 
more after his mill was ventilated, than previous to admitting 
fresh air into the rooms, and that he could not afford to have 
them breathe pure air. 

186. The food, unless changed, (as described in para¬ 
graphs 168, 169, "170, 171,) does not strengthen the body. 
When disease prevents this change, no food should be eaten. 
This rule should be regarded with infants as well as adults. 

187. When a person has been deprived of food for a con¬ 
siderable length of time, — as in the instance of a ship¬ 
wrecked mariner, or a person recovering from fever, — the 
food, at first, should be very simple, taken in small quantities, 
and eaten at regular hours. The weaker the person, the 
more important to observe these remarks. 

188. Water and most fluids are removed from the stom¬ 
ach in a very few minutes, by the action of the veins. In in¬ 
stances of great feebleness, the body can be strengthened 
sooner by liquid than by solid food. 

189. When travelling in coaches or cars, the stomach is 
not in a state to digest large quantities of food. When food 
is taken, it should be of the simplest character, and small in 
quantity. 

190. To prevent disease of the intestines and of the body, 
it is just as necessary that they be evacuated regularly, as 
that we take food into the stomach at regular periods. 

191. Sitting, standing, and walking erect, aid in keeping 
the digestive organs healthy. 

Another by a British manufacturer. 186. When should no food be 
eaten ? By whom should this rule be observed ? 187. When a person 

has been without food for several days, as a shipwrecked mariner, how 
should it be given ? 188. Which are introduced into the system soon¬ 

est fluids or solid food? 189. What is said in regard to food while 
we’are travelling? 191 What position of the body aids digestion ? 








CHAPTER VII. 


THE HEART AND ITS VESSELS. 

192. The blood is a fluid that passes through tubes, or 
vessels, to every part of the body. These vessels are called 
veins , ar'te-ries , and cap'il-la-ries. 

193. The central organ of this circulating fluid is the 
Heart. It is situated in the chest, between the right and 
left lung. (Fig. 46.) 

194. The heart is a double organ, or has two sides; 
called right and left. 

195. Each side of the heart has two cavities. The upper 
cavity is called the au'ri-cle, (deaf ear.) The lower cavity is 
called the ven'tri-cle. 

196. The auricles and ventricles are separated from each 
other by folds of membrane, called valves. 

197. Between the auricle and ventricle of the right side 
of the heart, there are three valves. 

198. Between the auricle and ventricle of the left side 
of the heart, there are two valves. 

Observation. To obtain a clear idea of the heart and its 
valves, it is recommended to examine this part of an ox or 
calf. 


192. What is the blood ? Name the vessels that carry the blood to 
different parts of the body. 193. What is the central organ of this cir¬ 
culating fluid ? Where is it situated ? 194. How many sides has the 

heart ? l95> How many cavities has it ? What is the upper cavity 

called ? What is the lower cavity called ? 196. How are these cavi¬ 
ties separated ? 197. How many valves between the right auricle and 

ventricle ? 198. How many valves between the left auricle and ven¬ 

tricle ? 



THE HEART AND ITS VESSELS. 


55 


199. The valves in the heart permit the blood to flow 
from the auricles to the ventricles, but prevent its reflowing. 

200. The valves at the commencement of the aorta and 
pulmonary artery, permit the blood to flow from the ventricles 
into these vessels, but prevent its returning. 


Fig. 33. Fig. 34. 



Fig. 33. 1, The right auricle of the heart. 2, The left auricle. 3, The 

right ventricle. 4. The left ventricle. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, Vessels* through 
which the blood passes to and from the heart. 

Fig. 34 A view of the heart with its cavities and the vessels in connec¬ 
tion with them. 1, 2, Vessels that carry the blood to the heart. 3, The 
right auricle. 4, The right ventricle. 5, The valves between the right 
auricle and ventricle. 6, The partition between the two ventricles. 8, 
The vessel that carries the blood to the lungs. 9, 9, The vessels that carry 
the blood to the left auricle, (10.) 11, The left ventricle. 15, The valves 

between the left auricle and ventricle. 12, 13, Valves at the commence¬ 
ment of the aorta and pulmonary artery. 14, The aorta. 

Illustration. The valves of the heart, in their use, are 
similar to those of a pump, or steam engine. 

201. The blood passes from the right auricle (3, fig. 34) 
into the right ventricle, (4;) from the right ventricle into the 
pulmonary artery, (8,) through which it passes to the lungs. 

* All vessels that carry blood to the heart, are called veins. All vessels 
that carry blood from the heart, are called arteries. 


199. What is the use of the valves of the heart? 200. What is the 
use of the valves at the commencement of the aorta and pulmonary 
artery ? What is shown by fig. 33 ? Describe fig. 34. Give illustra¬ 
tion. 201. Describe the circulation of the blood through the right side 
of the heart. 




56 


THE HEART AND ITS VESSELS. 


Fig. 35. 



Fig. 35. t, The windpipe, h, The heart, a, The aorta, p, The pul¬ 
monary artery. 1, The branch of the pulmonary artery that divides in the 
left lung. 2, The branch that divides in the right lung. 

The divisions of this artery continue to divide and subdivide, until they 
become no larger than hairs in size. Hence they are called capillary ves¬ 
sels. These minute vessels pass over the air-cells in the lungs, represented 
by small dark points around the margin of the lungs. 

202. The blood, while passing over the air-cells (fig. 49) 
in the minute divisions of the pulmonary artery, is changed 
from a bluish color to a bright red. (Fig. 50.) It is then 
returned to the left side of the heart by the pulmonary veins, 
(9, 9, fig. 34.) 

203. The left auricle, (10, fig. 34,) by its contraction, 
forces the blood into the left ventricle, (11.) The valves (15) 
prevent its reflowing. From the left ventricle the blood is 
forced into the aorta, (14.) The valves (13) prevent its re¬ 
turning. 


Explain fig. 35. How are the capillaries of the lungs formed ? 
202. Where does the blood change its color ? What vessels convey it 
to the left side of the heart ? 203. Describe the circulation of blood 
through the left side of the heart. 



THE HEART AND ITS VESSELS. 


57 


Fig. 36. 



Fig. 36. The aorta and its branches, a, The commencement of the aorta. 

204. The aorta divides and subdivides, until its minute 
branches are spread over every part of the body, in the same 
manner as the pulmonary artery is spread through every por¬ 
tion of the lungs. 

What does fig. 36 represent ? 204. What is said of the aorta? 














58 


THE HEART AND ITS VESSELS. 


205. The difference between the functions of these two 
vessels is this: one connects with the right ventricle of the 
heart, and distributes impure blood only to the lungs; the 
other connects with the left ventricle of the heart, and dis¬ 
tributes pure blood to the whole body, the lungs not excepted. 

206. At the extremity of the divisions of the aorta, as 
well as the pulmonary artery, are found capillary vessels. 
This curious net-work of vessels connects with the minute 
veins of the body, which return the impure blood to the heart. 


Fig. 37. 



Fig. 38. 



Fig. 37. '1, 1, A branch of the artery that carries the impure blood to 
the lungs. 3, 3, Capillary vessels. 2, 2, A vein through which red blood 
is returned to the left side of the heart. 

Fig. 38. 1, 1, A branch of the aorta. This terminates in the capillaries, 

(3, 3.) 2, 2, A vein through which the impure blood is carried to the right 
side of the heart. 


207. In fig. 37, the artery contains impure, dark-colored 
blood; it becomes red blood in the capillaries of the lungs, 
and is returned in the veins to the left side of the heart. 
This is called pul-mon'ic , or the circulation of blood in the 
lungs. 

208. In fig. 38, the artery contains red blood ; it becomes 
dark-colored in the capillaries, and is returned in the veins 
to the right side of the heart. This is called sys-tem'ic, or 
general circulation. 

205. What difference in the functions of the aorta and pulmonary 
artery ? 206. Where are the capillary vessels found ? What is repre¬ 

sented by fig. 37 ? By fig. 38 ? 207. What blood flows in the arteries 
in pulmonic circulation ? 208. In the general circulation of the system ? 





THE HEART AND ITS VESSELS. 


59 


209. The blood is carried to and from the heart by the 
agency of the arteries, veins, and capillaries. These ves¬ 
sels are found in every part of the system. They are neces¬ 
sary to the proper distribution of the blood. The relation 
of these vessels and the heart will be easily comprehended 
by attention to fig. 39. 


Fig. 39. 



210. From the right ventricle of the heart, (2, fig. 39,) 
the dark, impure blood is forced into the pulmonary artery, 

209. Are arteries, veins, and capillary vessels found in every part 
of the system ? 210. Explain the circulation of blood in the lungs and 
general system, by aid of fig. 39. 








60 


THE HEART AND ITS VESSELS. 


(3;) and its branches (4, 5) carry the blood to the left and 
right lung. In the capillary vessels (6, 6) of the lungs, the 
blood becomes pure, or of a red color, and is returned to the 
left auricle of the heart, (9,) by the veins, (7, 8.) From the 
left auricle the pure blood passes into the left ventricle, (10.) 
By a forcible contraction of the left ventricle of the heart, 
the blood is thrown into the aorta, (11.) Its branches (12, 
13, 13) carry the pure blood to every organ or part of the 
body. The divisions and subdivisions of the aorta terminate 
in capillary vessels, represented by 14, 14. In these hair¬ 
like vessels the blood becomes dark colored, and is returned 
to the right auricle of the heart, (1,) by the ve'na ca'va de~ 
seen'dens (15) and ve'na ca'va as-cen'dens, (16.) 

211. The heart aids in forcing the blood through the 
arteries, to the different parts of the body. Every time the 
heart contracts, there is a “ pulse,” or “ pulsation,” in the 
arteries. 

Experiment. Apply the fingers upon the artery at the 
wrist, at two different points, about two inches apart; if the 
pressure be moderately made, the “ pulse ” will be felt at 
both points. Let the upper point be pressed firmly, and 
there will be no pulsation at the lower point; but make 
strong pressure upon the lower point only, and the pulsation 
will continue at the upper point; proving that the blood 
flows from the heart, in the arteries, to different parts of the 
system. 

212. The heart contracts, or the pulse beats, about sev¬ 
enty-five times every minute, in adults; in infants, more than 
a hundred times every minute; in old persons, less than 
seventy-five times every minute. 


211. What causes the “ pulse,” or “ pulsation,” in the arteries ? 
How is it proved that the blood flows from the heart in the arteries ? 
212. How often does the heart contract in adults ? In infants ? In 
aged persons ? 




THE HEART AND ITS VESSELS. 


61 


213. There is no pulsation in the veins, and the return 
of the blood to the heart through them can be shown by the 
following experiments. 

Experiments. 1st. Press firmly on one of the veins upon 
the back of the hand, carrying the pressure towards the 
fingers; for a moment the vein will disappear. On removing 
the pressure of the finger, it will reappear, from the blood 
I rushing in from below. 

2d. If a tape be tied around the arm above the elbow, the 
I veins below will become larger and more prominent, and 
also a greater number will be brought in view. At this time, 
apply the finger at the wrist, and the pulsation of the arteries 
| still continues, showing that the blood is constantly flowing 
! from the heart into the veins; and the increased size of veins 
| shows that the pressure of the tape prevents its flowing back 
] to the heart. 

214. The blood is composed of two parts; sc'rum, (water,) 
j and co-ag'u-lum, (clot.) 

215. The blood is not necessarily red. It may be white, 
i as in the fish, and the tendons of man ; transparent, as in the 
j insect; or yellowish, as in the reptile. 

Observation. To prevent “ humors,” or to keep the blood 
pure, and also to purify the blood, attend to the suggestions 
i on exercise, (Chap. IV.,) on food, (Chap. VI.,) the free 
movements of the ribs and diaphragm, (Chap. VIII.,) and 
bathing and clothing, (Chap. XI.) 

216. The weight of blood in a common-sized man is be¬ 
tween twenty-five and thirty pounds. 

217. The blood contains all the material necessary for the 


213. Is there pulsation in the veins ? Give experiment 1st. Give 
experiment 2d. 214. Of what is the blood composed? 215. Is the 

blood always red ? What color is it in fish, and the tendons of man ? 
In insects ? In reptiles ? 216. How much blood does a common-sized 

man contain ? 217. What does the blood contain ? 

6 




62 


THE HEART ANI> ITS VESSELS. 


growth of the different parts of the body, as well as to 
repair the waste which attends the action of the different 
organs. 

218. Every part of the body is constantly changing. In 
some instances, we can see the change; as in the growth of 
the nails and hair. But the change that the muscles, bones, 
and other organs undergo, we cannot see. 

219. Thus, in several years, it may be said, that we have 
new systems. But the change is so gradual that our personal 
sameness is never lost. The time of the change is not defi¬ 
nite, as was supposed by a genuine son of the Emerald Isle, 
who had been in America seven years and three months, and 
consequently maintained that he was a native American. 

220. The useless atoms of the skin, muscles, bones, hair, 
and other parts of the body, are removed in different ways, 
and their places are supplied by newly-formed atoms from the 
blood. 


PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 

221. To have good health, the blood must circulate freely. 
No article of apparel should be worn so as to prevent a free 
flow of blood through every organ of the body. 

222. Strings, bands, or belts, however narrow, should not 
be worn so tightly as to cause an indentation of tke skin, of 
the trunk, or extremities. 

223. Inelastic bands, worn upon the lower extremities, 
are a frequent cause of enlarged veins and painful limbs. 


218. Is the body constantly changing? Can we see the change? 
219. What may be said of us after the lapse of years ? Is the time 
of the change definite ? 220. What becomes of the useless atoms of 
skin, hair, &c. ? How are their places supplied? 221. Is it neces¬ 
sary to health that the blood circulate freely ? 222. Is it injurious for 

bands or strings to cause indentations of the skin, of the trunk, or any 
part of the body ? 223. What is the effect of wearing inelastic bands 
upon the lower extremities ? 



THE HEART AND ITS VESSELS. 63 

224. The fulness and the crimson tin! of the face, gid¬ 
diness, fainting, and many derangements in the functions of 
different organs, are produced by pressure upon the blood¬ 
vessels of the trunk. 

225. The skin should be kept clean, and every part of 
an equal temperature, as these conditions favor free and vig¬ 
orous circulation. 

Observation. When intending to ride in a cold day, wash 
the face, hands, and feet, in cold water, and rub them smartly 
with a coarse towel. This is far better than to take spirits 
into the stomach to keep the extremities warm. 

226. Muscular exercise is important in maintaining a 
healthy circulation. The muscles, when used, force the 
blood more rapidly-to and from the heart. 

Illustration. The coach-driver and teamster throw their 
arms around their bodies to warm them, when cold; because 
the muscles that are called into action in swinging the arms, 
force a greater quantity of blood into the chilled parts, and 
more heat is produced. 

227. Idle men and women, who complain of cold feet, 
and take “ warming bitters” to quicken the blood, would find 
themselves warmer and more invigorated by calling the mus¬ 
cles into action in the mechanic’s shop, or the kitchen, or in 
some active employment. 

Observation. In cold weather, when travelling in cars, 
the feet will not become chilled so readily when standing as 
when sitting. Again, the feet will be warmer by allowing 
them to swing, instead of being supported the whole time, 


224. What is a frequent cause of giddiness, faintness, and derange¬ 
ment of the functions of many organs ? 225. In what condition should 

the skin be kept ? Give observation. 226. What is the effect of mus¬ 
cular exercise, upon the circulation of blood ? Give illustration. 227. 
What is better for cold feet and hands than “ warming bitters ” ? Give 
observation. 




64 


THE HEART AND ITS VESSELS. 


because the muscles, called into action in swinging them, 
increase the circulation of the blood. 

228. When large blood-vessels are wounded or cut, the 
flow of blood must be immediately stopped, or the person 
will soon die. 

229. If a large artery be wounded, the blood will be 
thrown out in jets, or jerks, every time the pulse beats. 


Fig. 40. Fig. 41. 



Fig. 40. The track of the large artery of the arm. 1, The collar-bone. 
9, 10, The large artery of the arm. 

Fig. 41. B, Represents the manner of compressing the artery near the 
collar-bone. A, The manner of compressing the large artery of the arm 
with the fingers. C, The manner of compressing the divided extremity 
of an artery in the wound, with a finger. 


228. What is necessary when large blood-vessels are wounded or 
cut ? 229. What is the appearance if an artery be wounded ? What 

is shown by fig. 40 ? What is shown by fig. 41 ? 



THE HEART AND ITS VESSELS. 


65 


230. The flow of blood can be stopped until a surgeon 
arrives, either by compressing the vessel between the wound 
and the heart, or by compressing the end of the divided ar¬ 
tery in the wound. 


Fi S* 42. Fig. 43. 



Fig. £2. The track of the large artery of the thigh. 7, The point where 
it may be compressed at the groin. 8, The artery at the middle of the 
thigh. 

Fig. 43. The different methods of compressing wounded arteries. A, 
The method of compressing the artery at the groin, with the thumb. B, 
Compressing the artery with the fingers. C, The method of compressing 
the mouth of the divided artery in the wound. The dotted lines show the 
course of the artery. 


230. How can the flow of blood be stopped ? What is shown by / 
fig. 42 ? By fig. 43 ? 

6 * 









66 


THE HEART AND ITS VESSELS. 


231. After making compression with the fingers, as de¬ 
scribed and illustrated, take a piece" of cloth or handkerchief, 
twist it cornerwise, and tie a hard knot midway between the 
two ends. This knot should be placed over the artery be¬ 
tween the wound and the heart, and the ends carried around 
the limb and loosely tied. A stick, five or six inches long, 
should be placed under the handkerchief, which should be 
twisted until the knot has made sufficient compression on the 
artery to allow the removal of the fingers without a return 
of bleeding. Continue the compression until a surgeon can 
be called. 


Fig. 44. Fig. 45. 



Fig. 44. A, B, The track of the large artery of the arm. C, The method 
of applying the knotted handkerchief to make compression on this artery. 

Fig. 45. A, C, The track of the large artery of the thigh. B, The 
method of applying the knotted handkerchief to compress this artery. 

Observation. When an artery of the arm is cut, elevating 
the wounded limb above the head will tend to arrest the flow 
of blood. In a wound of a lower limb, raise the foot, so that 
it shall be higher than the hip, until the bleeding ceases. 

231. What is to be done after compressing the wound as before de¬ 
scribed P What is shown by figs. 44, 45 ? 




THE HEART AND ITS VESSELS. 


67 


Illustration. On one occasion, the distinguished Dr. Na¬ 
than Smith was called to a person who had divided one of the 
large arteries below the knee. After trying, in vain, to find 
the bleeding vessel, so as to secure it, he caused the foot to 
be elevated higher than the hip. At first, the blood was 
forced from the wound about twelve inches; in a minute, it 
was diminished to three or four; and, in a short time, the 
bleeding ceased. This Dr. S. called his “great” operation; 
and it was truly great in simplicity and science . 

232. In “flesh wounds,” when no large blood-vessel is 
divided, wash the part with cold water, and, when bleeding has 
ceased, draw the wound together, and retain it with narrow 
strips of adhesive plaster. Then apply a loose bandage, and 
avoid all “ healing salves,” ointments, and Avashes. 

233. The union of the divided parts is effected by the ac¬ 
tion of the divided blood-vessels, and not by salves and oint¬ 
ments. 

234. Such simple wounds do not generally require a 
second dressing, and should not be opened till the wound is 
healed. 

232. How should “ flesh wounds ” be dressed ? What should be 
avoided? 233. How is the union of divided parts effected? 234. Is 

it necessary to remove the dressings from simple wounds every day ? 





(68) 



Fig. 46. A view of the organs of the chest and abdomen. The front 
walls of each cavity are removed. 1, 2, The ribs. 3, Fat between the 
lungs. 4,4, Fat surrounding the heart. 5, The heart. 6,7,8, The right 
lung. 9, 10, 11, The left lung. 12, The diaphragm. 13, 14, The right and 
left lobe of the liver. 16, The stomach. IS, The upper portion of the small 
intestine. 19, 19, 19, 19, The omentum, (caul.) 20, 20, The small intes¬ 
tines, seen through the caul. 21, The spleen. 22, 22, 22, The large in¬ 
testine. 23, 23, The walls of the abdomen turned down. 









CHAPTER VIII. 


THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 


235. The respiratory organs are the Lungs, Trachea, 
and its branches. 

236. The ribs, di'a-phvagm, and several small muscles, 
aid in res-pi-ra'tion, or breathing. 

237. The Lungs (lights) are situated on each side of the 
chest, having the heart between them. (See fig. 46.) 

238. The Diaphragm (midriff) forms the floor of the 
chest, upon which the lungs rest. It separates the lungs and 
heart from the stomach and liver. (See fig. 46.) 

239. The Trachea (windpipe) is situated in the front 
part of the neck, and extends from the mouth to the lungs. 
Through it the air passes to and from the lungs. 

240. This canal, formed off cartilaginous rings, divides, 
behind the upper part of the heart, into two branches, called 
bron'chi. 

241. One branch passes to the right lung; the other 
branch passes to the left lung. 

242. The Air-cells are very small sacs or bladders at 
the end of the minute divisions of the bronchi. 


235. Name the respiratory organs. 236. What other organs aid in 
breathing P 237. Where are the lungs situated ? 238. Describe the 
diaphragm. 239. Describe the trachea. Does the air that goes to the 
lungs return through the trachea ? 240. Of what is it formed ? Where 
does it divide into two branches ? What are these branches called ? 
241. Where do they pass ? 242. Describe the air-cells. 



70 


THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 


Illustration. The trachea may be compared to the trunk 
of a tree ; the bronchi , to two large branches; the subdivisions 
of the bronchi, to the branchlets and twigs; the air-cells, to 
the buds seen on the twigs in the spring. 


Fig. 47. 



, % 4 I‘ ? he tr o ac ^L a T d i t s < i ivisions in the right and left lung 
1, The trachea. 2, The branch that passes to the left lung. 3, The 


branch that passes to the right lung. 


243. The lungs are composed of air-cells and ti^bes, be¬ 
side' many small blood-vessels. 

244. These tubes, cells, and blood-vessels, are surrounded 
by a membrane, called th epleu'ra. 


Give illustration, 
the lungs composed ? 


<Joes fig. 47 represent ? 213. Of what 
444. What surrounds these vessels ? 


are 









THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 


71 


245. In breathing, the ribs are raised in front by muscles 
that are placed between and on them. This increases the 
diameter of the chest, as the ribs are situated obliquely. (See 
fig. 51.) When they are elevated, the central part of the 
diaphragm, which bulges into the cavity of the chest, is 
depressed. 

Fig. 48. 



Fig. 48. The bronchial or air-tubes and cells. 1, An air-tube. 2, 2, 2, 
Air-cells. 3, An air-tube and cells laid open. 

246. In this way, the cavity of the chest enlarges, and the 
air rushes, through the mouth and nose, into the trachea and 
its branches, to fill the air-cells. This is called in-spi-ra'tion. 

247. The chest is diminished in size by the contraction 
of the abdominal muscles, (see 22, 23, fig. 21,) and the air is 
forced from the lungs through the trachea, and escapes at 
the mouth or nose. This is called ex-pi-ra'tion. 

Experiment. Place the ear upon the chest of a person, and 
a murmuring sound, somewhat like the soft sighings of the 
wind through forest trees, will be heard. This sound is 
caused by the air rushing in and out of the lungs, and is 
peculiarly distinct in the child. 

' 245. When we breathe, how are the ribs raised ? Why does the 

elevation of the ribs increase the size of the chest? What effect has 
it on the diaphragm ? What is represented by fig. 48 ? 246. Describe 

how the air-cells are filled with air. What is this process called ? 
247. How is the chest diminished in size ? W T hat is this process called ? 
Give an experiment. 





72 


THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 


248. The air-cells are most numerous in the middle and 
lower part of the lung. When they are filled with air, the 
lung is soft and spongy, and will float on water. This is the 
probable reason that they are improperly called “ lights,” 

249. The air which fills these cells, or atmospheric air, is 
composed of two gases, ox'y-gen &.nd ni'tro-gen. 


Fig. 49. 



Fig. 49. 1, Represents a bronchial tube divided into three branches. 
2, 2, 2, Air-cells. 3, A branch of the pulmonary artery that divides into 
three branches, and spreads over the air-cells. 4, A pulmonary vein that 
returns the red blood to the heart. This is formed by the union of these 
smaller veins, that come from the air-cells, 2, 2, 2. 

250. As the impure blood is passing in the minute vessels 
over the air-cells, the oxygen passes through the thin coats of 
the air-cells and blood-vessels, and unites with the blood. 
(See fig. 49.) At the same time, the carbonic acid gas 
leaves the blood, and passes through the coats of the blood¬ 
vessels and air-cells, and mixes with the air in the cells, and 
is thrown out of the system every time we breathe. 

Experiment. Fill a bladder with dark blood drawn from 
any animal. Tie the bladder closely, and suspend it in the 
air. In a few hours, the blood next the membrane will have 
become of a bright red color. This is owing to the oxygen 
from the air passing through the bladder, and uniting with 

248. Where are the air-cells the most numerous ? What is the ap¬ 
pearance of the lungs when filled with air ? 249. Of what is atmos¬ 
pheric air composed ? What does fig. 49 represent ? 250. Where 

does the oxygen of the air mix with the blood ? When does the car¬ 
bonic acid gas mix with the air ? Give experiment. 



THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 


73 


the blood, while the carbonic acid gas has escaped through 
the membrane. 


Fig. 50. 



Fig. 50. * The right lung. ** The left lung. 1, The trachea. 2, A 
» branch to the right lung. 3, A branch to the left lung v 4, The right au- 
( ride. 5, The right ventricle. 6, The pulmonary artery. 8. The branch 
; to the right lung. 9, The branch to the left lung. 10, The left pulmonary 
j vein. 11, The right pulmonary vein. 12, The left auricle. 13, The left 
J ventricle. 

251. Air that has been deprived of a portion of its oxy¬ 
gen, and also contains carbonic acid gas, is injurious if 
inhaled into the lungs. 

Observation. Air in which a lighted candle or lamp will 
not burn brightly, is unfit to be inhaled into the lungs. 

Experiment. Sink a glass jar that has a stop-cock, or one 


251. Is it injurious to breathe air that has been deprived of a portion 
of its oxygen ? How can we detect the presence of an undue amount, 
of carbonic acid gas ? Illustrate this by an experiment. 





74 


THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 


with a glass stopper, into a pail of water, until the air is ex¬ 
pelled from the jar. Fill the lungs with air, and retain it in 
the chest a short time, and then breathe into the jar, and 
instantly close the stop-cock. Close the opening of the jar 
that is under the water with a piece of paper laid on a plate 
of sufficient size to cover the opening, invert the jar, and sink 
into it a lighted candle. The flame will be extinguished as 
quick as if put in water.* 

252. The dark color of the blood is owing to the presence 
of carbonic acid gas. This is formed in the blood-vessels by 
the union of carbon and oxygen. 

Observation. Charcoal is carbon in an impure state. 
When coal is burning, the oxygen unites with it and forms 
carbonic acid gas. This gas, when taken into the lungs, 
produces death. Many persons have been killed by sleeping 
in rooms warmed by burning charcoal in an open pan, or 
portable furnace. 

253. Carbon is supplied to the blood through the food. 
It is carried out of the system, not only by the lungs, but by 
the skin and other organs. 

Experiment. Breathe into lime-water, and in a few minutes 
it will become of a milk-white color. This is owing to the 
carbonic acid gas of the breath uniting with the lime, 
forming the carbonate of lime. 

PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 

254. The cavity of the chest is increased in size in two 
ways. 1st. By the contraction of the muscles that elevate 

* As a substitute for a jar with a stop-cock, take a piece of lead pipe 
bent in the form of a siphon, and insert it in the mouth of a reversed jar. 


252. To what is the dark color of the blood owing ? Where is this 
gas formed ? Why is it injurious to sleep in a room where charcoal 
is burning in an open furnace ? 253. From what source is the carbon 

of the system derived ? How is it carried out of the system ? 254. 

How is the cavity of the chest increased in size ? 






THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 


75 


the ribs. 2d. By the depression of the central convex por¬ 
tion of the diaphragm. 

255. When the dress restricts or prevents the movements 
of the ribs and diaphragm, the chest is not duly enlarged, and 
consequently the air-cells are not properly filled with air. 

256. When the air-cells are not properly filled, the impure 
blood is not suitably changed, and is carried again into the 
different organs of the body, causing disease. 


Fig. 51. Fig. 52. 



Fig. 51. A section of the chest when the lungs are inflated. 1, The 
diaphragm. 2, The muscular walls of the abdomen. 

Fig. 52. A section of the chest when the lungs are contracted. 1,1, The 
diaphragm. 2, 2, The muscular walls of the abdomen. 

These engravings show the diaphragm to be more convex, and the walls 
of the abdomen more flattened, when the lungs are contracted, than when 
they are inflated. 


255. What effect has tight clothing upon the ribs and diaphragm ? 
256. What is the effect when the air-cells are not properly filled with 
air ? What do figs. 51. and 52 represent ? 










76 


THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 


257. Deformed, small waists are not made in a day or a 
month, but by steady, and, it may be , moderate pressure, 
week after week. 

Observations. 1st. The Chinese, by bandaging the feet 
of female children, prevent their growth; so that the foot 
of a Chinese belle is not larger than the foot of an American 
girl of five years. 

2d. The American women bandage their chests , to prevent 
their growth; so that the chest of an American belle is not 
larger than the chest of a Chinese girl of five years. Which 
country, in this respect, exhibits the greatest intelligence ? 

3d. The chest can be deformed by making the linings of 
the waists of the dres'ses tight, as well as by corsets. Tight 
vests, upon the same principle, are also injurious. 



Fig. 53. The skeleton of a deformed chest. 
Fig. 54. The skeleton of a well-formed chest. 


258. Persons that have large, full chests, particularly at 
the lower part, are not so liable to diseases of the lungs, as 
those who have narrow, contracted chests. 


257. How are deformed waists 
formed, as given by observation 
free from diseases of the lungs ? 
is represented by fig. 54 P 


made ? ^ How may the chest be de- 
258 ' What persons are most 
What does fig. 53 represent ? What 







THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 


77 


259. A contracted chest, caused either by injudicious 
dressing, or B^'any other means, can be enlarged, although 
the person is thirty years of age, by permitting the muscles 
that elevate the ribs and diaphragm to perform their proper 
function. 

269. Scholars, and persons who sit much of the time, 
should frequently, during the day, breathe full and deep, so 
that the smallest air-cells may be fully filled with air. While 
exercising the lungs, the shoulders should be thrown back 
and the head held erect. 


Fig. 55. Fig. 56. 



Fig. 55. A correct outline of the Venus de Medici, the beau ideal of 
female symmetry. 

Fig. 56. An outline of a well-corseted modern beauty. One has a waist 
as God formed it; the other, as fashion has deformed it. 


259. Can narrow, contracted chests be enlarged ? 269. What prac¬ 
tice ^recommended to scholars and sedentary persons'? 

7 # 




78 


THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 


261. The air that is breathed from the lungs, is not only 
deficient in oxygen, and contains carbonic acid gas, but it 
also contains waste animal matter in a state of vapor. 

Observation. This vapor can be seen in a foggy day, or 
by breathing on glass or any polished surface. 

262. If the air be breathed over a number of times, it 
not only causes lamps to be extinguished, but destroys life. 
Hence sleeping rooms, sitting rooms, and every room occu¬ 
pied by human beings, should be well ventilated. 

Illustrations. 1st. The effects of breathing the same air 
again and again, is well illustrated by an incident that oc¬ 
curred in one of our halls of learning. A large audience 
had assembled in an ill-ventilated room, to listen to a lecture; 
soon the lamps burned so dimly that the speaker and audi¬ 
ence were nearly enveloped in darkness. A few minutes 
after many of the audience had left, the lamps were observed 
to rekindle, owing to the exchange of pure air, on opening 
the door, which supplied to them oxygen. 

2d. The “ Black Hole of Calcutta ” received its name 
from the fact, that one hundred and forty-six Englishmen 
were shut up in a room eighteen feet square, with only two 
small windows. On opening this dungeon, ten hours after 
their imprisonment, only twenty-three were alive. The 
others had died from breathing impure air, that contained 
animal matter from their own bodies. 

263. The sick room, particularly, should be so arranged 
that the impure air may escape, and pure air be constantly 
coming into the room. 

264. Curtains around the bed, and the sheet over the 
face, are injurious. The effect is the same as is produced 
by sleeping in a small room not ventilated. 

261. What is said of the air that is breathed from the lungs ? Give 
the observation. 262. Why should sitting-rooms, and those we sleep 
in, be well ventilated ? Give illustration 1st. Illustration 2d. 263. 

How should sick rooms be arranged ? 264. What effect have curtains 

around a bed ? 



THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 


79 


265. Children and adults not unfrequently get foreign 
bodies into the throat. These accidents require immediate 
attention. It is not necessary to ascertain which passage 
the foreign body is in, for the immediate treatment ought in 
either case to be the same. 

266. Some person should place one hand on the front of 
the chest of the sufferer, and, with the other, give two or 
three smart blows upon the back, allowing a few seconds to 
intervene between them. 

267. This treatment will generally be successful, and 
cause the substance to be violently thrown from the throat. 

268. To recover persons apparently drowned, it is neces¬ 
sary to press the chest suddenly and forcibly, downward and 
backward, and instantly discontinue the pressure. Repeat 
this without intermission, until a pair of bellows can be pro¬ 
cured. When the bellows are obtained, introduce the nozzle 
well upon the base of the tongue, and surround the mouth 
and nose with a towel or handkerchief, to close them. Let 
another person press upon the projecting part of the neck, 
called “ Adam’s apple,” while air is introduced into the 
lungs through the bellows. 

269. Then press upon the chest, to force the air from the 
lungs, to imitate natural breathing. Continue the use of the 
bellows, and forcing the air out of the chest, for an hour at 
least, unless signs of natural breathing come on. 

270. Wrap the body in warm, dry blankets, and place it 
near the fire, to preserve the natural warmth, as well as to 
impart artificial heat. 

271. Every thing, however, is secondary to filling the 
lungs with air. Send for medical aid immediately. Avoid 
all friction until breathing is restored. 

265. When foreign bodies, as buttons, beans, &c., get into the 
throat, what should be done immediately ? 268. How should persons 
apparently drowned be treated ? 



80 


THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 


272. In cases of apparent death from hanging or stran¬ 
gling, the knot should be untied or cut immediately; then use 
artificial respiration or breathing, as directed in apparent 
death from drowning. 

Observation. It is a vulgar impression, in many sections 
of the country, that the law will not allow the removal of 
the cord from the neck of a body found suspended, unless the 
coroner be present. It is, therefore, proper to say, that no 
such delay is necessary, and that no time should be lost in 
removing the body. 

273. ’ When life is apparently suspended from breathing 
carbonic acid gas, the person should be carried into the open 
air. The head and shoulders should be slightly elevated, 
the face and chest should be sponged or sprinkled with cold 
water, or cold vinegar and water. Apply friction to the 
skin, with a coarse cloth or flesh-brush, and resort to arti¬ 
ficial respiration. 

274. All these means should be resorted to promptly, and, 
if necessary, continued for several hours. 


272. How should apparent death from strangling be managed ? 273. 
How should a person be treated who has breathed carbonic acid gas ? 



CHAPTER IX. 


THE VOICE. 

275. The simple yet beautiful mechanism of the vocal 
instrument, producing every variety of sound, from a harsh, 
hoarse, unmelodious tone, to a soft, sweet, flute-like sound, 
can never be imitated by art. 

276. It has been compared, by many physiologists, to a 
wind, reed, and stringed instrument. This inimitable instru¬ 
ment is the Lar'ynx. 

277. The Larynx (Adam’s apple) is a kind of box, sit¬ 
uated at the upper part of the Trachea, or windpipe. 

278. It is composed of several pieces of cartilage, that 
not only connect with each other, but with the tongue, lower 
jaw, and trachea. 

279. There are stretched across the cavity formed by 
these cartilages, four folds of membrane, two on each side, 
called vocal cords. 

280. The space between the cords on each side is called 
the glot'tis, or chink of the glottis. The cavity between the 
upper and lower vocal cords is called the ventricle of the 
larynx. 

281. Behind the base of the tongue, is a piece of car¬ 
tilage, resembling a leaf of parsley, called the ep-i-glot'tis. 


275. What is said of the structure of the vocal instrument? 276. 
What instruments have physiologists compared it with ? What is the 
vocal instrument called ? 277. Describe the larynx. 278. Of what 

is it composed ? 279. Describe the vocal cords. 280. What is the 

space between these cords called? 281. Where is the epiglottis 
situated ? 



82 


THE VOICE. 


The duty of this sentinel is to keep the food and drink from 
passing into the air-passage, or trachea. 


Fig. 58. 


Fig. 57. 



Fig. 57. A side view of the cartilages of the larynx. 1, The bone at the 
root of the tongue. 4, 6, Cartilages of the larynx. 7, The trachea. 

Fig. 58. A section of the larynx. 1,1, The upper vocal cords. 2, 2, 
The lower vocal cords. 3, 3, The glottis. 4, 4, The ventricles of the 
larynx. 

282. When air is forcibly driven from the lungs through 
the glottis, it causes a vibration, or trembling of>the vocal 
cords. This produces sound; and it is varied by the tongue, 
the teeth, and the lips. 

283. The state of the musches that connect the larynx 
with the chin and tongue, strikingly varies sound. 

284. The condition of the mind, as well as the health of 
the lungs, exerts a great influence over the organs of voice. 


What is its use ? What does fig. 57 represent ? Describe fig. 58. 
282. How is sot nd produced ? By what organs is it varied ? 283. 

Does the state of the muscles of the throat affect sound P 284. Does 
the state of the mind, as well as the health, have an effect on sound ? 









THE VOICE. 


83 


PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 

285. Singing, and reading aloud, improve and strengthen 
the vocal organs, and should be practised by every youth. 

Observation. The enunciation of the elementary sounds 
of the English language aids in developing the vocal organs, 
as well as preventing disease of the throat and lungs, (bron¬ 
chitis.) This exercise also conduces to the acquisition of 
the notes in music. 


Fig. 59. Fig. 60. 



JO lii • Is U • XLil A A p A 7 i 1 • 1 -1 

of our common schools, and in some of our public speakers. 

Fig. 60. The proper position for reading, speaking, and singing. _ 

285. How may the vocal organs be strengthened ? What effect has 
the enunciation of the elementary sounds of the ^nglish language. 
















84 


THE VOICE. 


286. In reading and singing, whether standing or sitting, 
the head and trunk should be erect. 

287. When the body is erect, the muscles are more under 
the control of the person, the ribs and diaphragm move with 
more freedom, and sound is more sonorous and equal. 

Experiment. Read with the head bowed forward and chin 
depressed; then read with the head erect and chin elevated, 
and observe the difference in the sound. 

288. Variation of tone and articulation of w’ords are 
rendered more or less distinct in proportion as the jaws are 
separated, and the nose free from obstructions. 

289. In teaching a child to talk, have each word spoken 
correctly, and repeated until it can be uttered with accuracy. 

Observation. The drawling method of talking to young 
children, as well as using words that are not found in any 
written language, is decidedly wrong. A child will pronounce 
and understand the application of a correct word as quickly 
as an incorrect word. 

290. The dress about the neck should be loose. A tight, 
high cravat prevents the muscles moving freely, enfeebles the 
voice, and finally produces disease of the throat and lungs. 

291. Pure air produces clearer and more melodious 
sounds than impure; hence school-rooms, public halls, and 
churches, should be well ventilated. 

292. When individuals have been addressing an audience 
in a warm room, or engaged in singing, they should avoid all 
impressions of a cold atmosphere. 

286. What should be the position of the head and trunk when we read 
or sing ? 287. Why should the body be erect ? 288. What will render 
the articulation of words more distinct ? 290. How should the dress be 
worn about the neck? Why? 291. What effect has pure air upon 
sound ? 292. What precaution should lecturers and singers observe ? 



CHAPTER X 


THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 


293. The Brain, Spinal Cord, and Nerves, compose this 
system. These are the most important parts of the body, for 
all its functions are under their control. 


Fig. 61. 



Fig. 61. A section of the bones of the skull and brain, a, a, The outer 
margin of gray matter, b, b , The white central part. The dots in the 
white portion show the situation of divided blood-vessels. 


293. What parts of the body compose the nervous system ? What 
is said of their importance ? What is shown by fig. 61 ? 

8 






S6 


THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 


294. The Brain is a pulpy organ within the skull-bones. 

295. The upper and front portion is called the Cer'e-brum. 

296. The lower portion, situated at the back part of the 
skull, is called the Cer-e-bellum. 

297. The cerebrum, or larger portion of the brain, is 
composed of a whitish substance, with an irregular border of 
gray matter around its edges. 

298. The brain is surrounded with three membranes. 
The outer membrane ( Du'ra Ma'ter) is thick and firm. 


Fig. 62. 



Fig. 62. a, o, Represents the scalp turned down, b, b, b, The cut edges 
of the bones of the skull, c, The outer membrane of the brain suspended 
by a hook, d, The left side of the brain, showing its convolutions. 


294. Describe the brain. 295. "What is the upper portion called ? 
296. What is the lower portion called ? 297. Describe the structure of 
the cerebrum. 298. How many membranes surround the brain? Give 
the structure of the outer membrane. What does fig. 62 represent ? 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 


87 


299. The middle membrane is thin, and looks somewhat 
like a spider’s web. The inner membrane consists of a net¬ 
work of blood-vessels; through these vessels blood is con¬ 
veyed to the brain. 

300. On removing the upper part of the skull-bones and 
membranes, the brain presents an undulating, folded appear¬ 
ance. These ridges are called Con-vo-lu'tions. 

301. There are four cavities in the substance of the brain, 
called ventricles. In “ dropsy of the brain,” the water ac¬ 
cumulates in these cavities. 

302. The Spinal Cord is composed of a whitish sub¬ 
stance, similar to that of the brain. 

303. It is covered with a sheath or membrane, and extends 
from the brain through the whole length of the spinal column. 

304. The upper portion of the spinal cord within the 
skull-bone, is called the Mc-dul'la Ob-lon-ga'ta. (Fig. 63.) 

305. The nerves are small, white cords, that pass from 
the brain and spinal cord. They are distributed to every 
part of the human system. 

306. The nerves proceed from each side of the brain 
and spinal cord, at precisely opposite points; hence they are 
said to pass off in pairs. 

307. Every nerve, however small, contains two distinct 
cords of nervous matter. One gives feeling to the part where 
it is distributed; the other is used in the motion of the part. 
Both filaments or cords of nervous matter are enclosed in 
one sheath. 


299. What is said of the middle membrane ? Inner membrane ? 
300. What is the appearance of the brain on removing the upper part 
of the skull-bones and membranes? What are they called? 301. In 
dropsy of the brain, where is the accumulation of water ? 302. Of 

what is the spinal cord composed ? 303. With what is it covered, and 

where is it situated? 304. What is that portion of the spinal cord 
within the skull-bones called? 305. Describe the nerves. Where are 
they distributed ? 306. Whence do the nerves of the body proceed ? 
307. What does every nerve contain ? What is the use of these two 
tracts of nervous matter? Are they enclosed in one sheath ? 



88 


THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 




















THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 


89 


Fig. 63. a. The cerebrum, b, The cerebellum, a, Medulla oblongata. 
e, d, The spinal cord. The brain, spinal cord, and bones of the spinal 
column, are represented as divided into two halves. 

Fig. 64. A, The cerebrum. B, The cerebellum. C, C, The spinal cord, 
surrounded by its sheath, and commencement of twenty-nine pairs of 
nerves. 

308. These small cords carry to the brain the news of - 
the actual condition of every organ, as rapidly as Professor 
Morse’s Magnetic Telegraph conveys the news from one city 
to another. 

309. Twelve pairs of nerves pass from the brain, and are 
generally distributed to the parts about the face. 


Fig. 65. 



Fis 65. A section of the brain, and commencement of the spinal cord. 
1 The cerebrum. 2, The cerebellum. 3, 4, The spinal cord. 6, The nerve 
that goefto t^nose. (ol-fac'to-ry.) (See fig. 72.) 7, The nerve that goes 

to the eye, (op 1 tic.) (See fig. 77.) 9, 10,12, Small nerves that go to the 
muscles of the eye. (See fig 80.) 11. The nerves that go to the teeth and 

tongue. (See fig. 71.) 13, A nerve that goes to the muscles of the face. 

(See fig. 21.) 14, The nerve that goes to the ear, 

15,16,17, The nerves that go to the larynx and tongue. 18, 19, 20, JNerves 
of the neck. ____ t 

308. What is the use of each nerve ? 309. How many pairs of 

nerves pass from the brain ? 

8 * 








90 


THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 


310. Thirty-one pairs of nerves pass from the spinal 
cord. 

311. The nerves of the neck, arms, and fingers, pass from 
the upper portion of the spinal cord. 

312. The lower portion of the spinal cord supplies nerves 
to the lower extremities. 

313. Through the brain, the mind acts or wills; hence, 
from the form of the skull-bones, it is called, poetically, the 
“ dome of thought.” 

314. The condition of the brain is changed by the action 
of the mind. 

Illustration. If we think intensely of a subject, the face 
will become flushed, and dizziness or pain of the head will 
be induced. Change our thoughts to something of a more 
trifling character, and the peculiar sensation in the head will 
cease 

315. The brain is not only the seat of the Will , but it 
perceives every sensation. 

Illustration. Prick the skin with a needle, and the small 
nerve that is wounded carries the news to the brain, and we 
feel a sensation called pain. 

316. If the brain be diseased, and cannot perform its func¬ 
tions, then pain is not felt, and the person thus diseased falls 
into a state resembling sleep. 

317. Contraction or movement of the muscles is caused 
by an influence sent from the brain through the nerves. If 
the nerves be cut or compressed, the motion and sensation 
are destroyed in the part to which they are distributed. 


310. How many pairs of nerves pass from the spinal cord? 311. 
Where are the nerves from the upper portion of the spinal cord dis¬ 
tributed ? 312. Where are the nerves of the lower portion of the 

spinal cord distributed ? 313. Through what organ does the mind act ? 

314. Does the state of the mind affect the brain ? Give an illustration. 

315. What organ perceives sensation ? Give an illustration. 316. If 

the brain be diseased, what effect will it have on sensation ? 317. 

What causes the fibres of the muscles to contract ? 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 


91 




Fig. 66. 




92 


THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 


Fig. 66. A back view of the brain and spinal cord. 1, The cerebrum. 
2, The cerebellum. 3, The spinal cord. 4, Nerves of the face. 5, 6, 7, 8, 
9, Nerves of the arm. 10, Nerves that pass under the ribs. 11, 12, 13, 14, 
15, 16, Nerves of the lower limbs. 

318. There is another system of nerves, which do not 
confer either sensibility or power of movement. They are 
called sympathetic nerves. 

319. These nerves have a union or sympathy with the 
different organs of the body. 

Illustration. When the brain is jarred by a blow, nausea 
and vomiting follow. Again, when food is taken that irri¬ 
tates the nerves of the stomach, it produces headache, from 
the sympathy of the brain with the stomach, through this 
system of nerves. 

PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 

320. The brain, like the muscles, should be used, and 
then allowed to rest, or cease from vigorous thought. 

Observation. Many students use the brain too many hours 
without rest. When there is an inability to remember facts, 
dizziness, or a confusion of ideas, study is then of little or no 
utility. 

321. The number of hours that the brain should be vig¬ 
orously used depends on its development, and the general 
health of the body. 

322. The child with a large brain and an active mind, 
should never be stimulated, by praise or rewards, to pursue 
studies above the capacity of children generally. On the 
other hand, children of sluggish minds, particularly if they 
have good health, should be incited to study. 

323. The child that has a frail, feeble body should not 

318. Name another system of nerves in the body. 319. Do these 
nerves have a union with the different organs of the body? 320. 
What rule is given in regard to the brain? 321. How long should 
the brain be actively used ? 322. Give illustration. 323. Should 

the child that is feeble be confined to the school-room ? 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 


93 


be chosen from his more healthy brothers, to spend the little 
strength of body and mind that he may possess, in our semi¬ 
naries and colleges, but should have out-of-door exercise, to 
increase the strength of his system. 

Observation. Let the Latin maxim, “ Mens sana in sano 
corpore,” (a sound mind in a sound body,) be taught in every 
school-room. 

324. When the brain is properly called into action by 
moderate study, it increases in size and strength. 

325. If the brain be not used, it becomes enfeebled, 
thereby diminishing the function of the organs of the 
body. 

326. Repetition of mental action is as important as repe¬ 
tition of muscular action. It is by this means, that thoughts 
are durably impressed upon the brain. 

327. Studies that require close application should be pur¬ 
sued in the morning. The evening should be devoted to 
entertaining conversation, music, and light reading. This 
will fit the system of the student for quiet and refreshing 
sleep. 

Observation. The idea of gathering wisdom by burning 
the “midnight oil” is more poetical than profitable. The 
best time to use the brain is during the day. 

328. To keep the brain in health, it should be supplied 
with a due amount of pure blood. 

Illustration. 1st. If a person lose a considerable quan¬ 
tity of blood, dizziness and loss of consciousness follow. 2d. 
The exhaustion of teachers and scholars arises, in many 

What would be better for him ? What Latin maxim should be 
taught in every school-room ? 324. What is the effect when the brain 

is properly called into action ? 325. What is the effect if the brain be 

not used ? 326. How are thoughts durably impressed upon the brain ? 

327. When should abstruse, or the severer studies be pursued ? 328. 

Why should the brain be supplied with pure blood ? Give illustra¬ 
tion 1st. Illustration 2d. 




94 


THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 


instances, from breathing bad air, thus causing impure blood 
to be sent to the brain. 

329. In restoring a sick person to health, it is very im¬ 
portant that the brain and nervous system be acted upon by 
pure blood; consequently they should breathe pure air at 
night as well as by day. 

330. Sick rooms should not only be well ventilated, but 
they should be kept quiet. No person should visit a sick¬ 
room unless he has some duty to perform for the sick person. 
This remark should be as strictly observed with the child as 
with the adult. 

331. In injuries of the brain, the person is generally in¬ 
sensible, the extremities are pale and cold, the pulse feeble, 
and the breathing is less full and deep. When these symp¬ 
toms exist, the patient should be placed in pure air. Fric¬ 
tion, with dry warmth, should be applied to the extremities, 
to restore proper circulation in the blood-vessels. There 
should be no bleeding until the skin of the extremities be¬ 
comes warm. 


329. Is it of great importance that the brain and nervous system of 
a sick person be acted upon by pure blood ? 330. Should the sick¬ 
room be kept quiet ? 331. What is the general state of the body 

when the brain is injured ? Give the treatment under such circum¬ 
stances. 



I 


CHAPTER XI. 

THE SKIN. 


332. The skin of the human body is composed of two 
layers of membrane; namely, the cu'ti-cle, and the cu'tis 
ve'ra, or true skin. 

333. The Cuticle, or external skin, is, at first, a fluid 
thrown out by the blood-vessels over the internal layer of the 
skin. 

334. While layers of this fluid are continually forming 
on the upper surface of the cutis vcra, the external layers of 
the fluid become dry, and resemble small scales. 

Illustrations. The cuticle is that part of the skin which 
is raised by a blister. It is also frequently seen peeling from 
the face and hands in small pieces. 

335. The arrangement of the cuticle, in different parts of 
the human body, is worthy of notice. Where feeling is most 
acute, the cuticle is delicate and thin. Where there is mo¬ 
tion, as over the joints, it is lax and movable. Where it is 
in constant use, it becomes harder and thicker. 

Illustrations. The soles of the feet and the palms of the 
hands afford good examples of cuticle thickened by use. 

336. The cuticle has no blood-vessels or nerves; conse- 


332. How many layers of membrane has the skin ? What are 
they called ? 333. How is the cuticle first formed ? 334. What is the 

appearance of the external layers ? Give illustration. 335. Mention 
the arrangement of the cuticle in different parts of the body. 336. 
Has the cuticle blood-vessels or nerves ? 



96 


THE SKIN. 


quently, a needle may be passed under it, to some extent, and 
cause no pain, nor will any blood ooze from it. 

337. Its use is to protect the delicate vessels which are 
situated in the internal layer of the skin. 

338. The cuticle, when clean, looks like a thin shaving 
of soft, clear horn; but when filled with dust and other foul 
matter, it becomes dark colored. 

339. In the inner and newly-formed layers of the cuticle, 
there exists a peculiar kind of paint. 

Fig. 67. 


Fig. 67. 1, 1, The cuticle. 2, 2, The colored layer of the cuticle. 4, 4, 
The net-work of nerves. 5 , 5 , The true skin. 6, 6, 6, Three nerves that 
divide to form the net-work, (4, 4.) 

340. This colored layer, in the Negro, is black; in the 
Indian, copper colored; in the European, it is very light, 
differing, however, in different persons. 

341. The Cutis Vera, or true skin, is so called because 



337. What is its use ? 338. What is the general appearance of the 
cuticle ? 339. What is found in the inner and newly-formed layers 

of the cuticle? 340. What color is it in the Negro ? Indian ? Euro¬ 
pean ? 341. Why is the cutis vera so called ? 










THE SKIN. 


97 


it is the most essential of the two layers of the skin. It 
contains several sets of vessels ; namely, Arteries , Veins , and 
Ab-sorb'ents. 

342. In this layer, beside these vessels, there are found 
both oil and perspi'ra-to-ry (sweat) glands, and nerves. 

343. The arteries and veins form a net-work upon the 
surface of the true skin; hence, cut any part of this layer of 
skin, and it will bleed. By the arteries the skin is nourished. 

Observation. When this layer of skin is destroyed by cuts 
or burns, it is never formed again, and produces scars which 
do not disappear. 

Fig. 68. 



Fig. 68. A, A, Arterial branches. B, B, Capillary or hair-like vessels, 
in which the large branches terminate. C, The venous trunk, collecting 
the blood from the capillaries. 

344. The nerves, like the blood-vessels, are very numer¬ 
ous, for no part of the skin can be pricked or cut without 
giving pain. 


What does it contain ? 342. What vessels exist in this layer beside 

the last mentioned ? 343. What do the arteries and veips form upon 

the true skin ? By what vessel is the skin supplied with blood ? Give 
the observation. 344. Are the nerves numerous upon the true skin? 

9 



98 


THE SKIN. 


345. By this sensibility, we are warned not to handle 
heated bodies, nor expose the system suddenly to a cold 
atmosphere. , 

346. The absorbents are those small vessels which open 
upon the inner layers of the cuticle. These vessels are 
called into action when ointments are rubbed on the skin; 
and also in vaccination, to prevent the small-pox. 

Observations. 1st. When removing the skin from animals 
that have died of disease, and in handling poisonous matter, 
either vegetable or mineral, care should be taken that the 
cuticle of the hand be not broken. 

2d. If the skin is cut or punctured while removing the 
skins from animals, immediately wash the wound with pure 
water, and cover it with “ court plaster,” or something im¬ 
pervious to moisture. 


Fig. 69. 

12 3 4 



Fig. 69. 1, 2, 3, Oil-glands and tubes from different parts of the body. 
4, An oil-gland and tube from the scalp. The glands (A) form a cluster 
around the tube of the hair, (C.) These ducts open into the sheath of the 
hair, (B.) The figures, from 1 to 4, are magnified thirty-eight diameters. 


345. What benefit arises from the sensibility of the nerves of the 
skin ? 346. What is said of the absorbent vessels of the skin ? When 

are they called into action ? Give the observations. What does fig. 
69 represent ? 











THE SKIN. 


99 


347. When there are wounds or “ sores ” on the hand, 
cover them with a “ court plaster,” or cloth upon which ad¬ 
hesive plaster is spread. It is a good precaution, under such 
circumstances, to rub the hands with oil or lard. 

348. The skin, when in health, is moistened with an oily 
fluid, which is separated from the blood by small glands. 
The ducts of these glands open upon the external layer of 
the skin. 

349. In a few situations, these small glands are worthy 
of particular attention, as in the eyelids, where they possess 
great beauty of distribution and form, and open by minute 
pores along the lids; in the ear passages, where they pro¬ 
duce the “wax” of the ears; and in the scalp, where they 
resemble small clusters of grapes, supplying the hair with a 
pomatum of nature’s own preparing. 

350. When there is an unnatural accumulation of oil in 
the tubes, it produces the “ worm,” or “grub.” The black¬ 
ened appearance at the end of the tube is produced by dust, 
which is mixed with the oily matter in the duct. This can 
be prevented and removed by frequent bathing. 

351. The perspiratory glands separate from the blood the 
perspiration or sweat. These glands have spiral ducts that 
open obliquely upon the surface of the skin. (13, 14, fig. 70.) 

352. There are more than two thousand of these glands, 
with ducts, in every square inch of skin, and more than five 
million of them in this natural covering of the body. 

353. In health these glands are in constant action, and 
the skin is moist. When this moisture cannot be seen, it is 


347. How can we prevent poisonous matter from being carried into 
the system ? 348. What is the use of the oil-glands of the skin ? 

349. How do these glands appear in different parts of the body? 

350. What does an unnatural accumulation of this oily matter pro¬ 
duce ? 351. What is the use of the perspiratory glands? Where do 

their ducts open ? 352. How many of the ducts .upon every square 

inch of skin ? 353. When is perspiration called insensible ? 



100 


THE SKIN. 


called insensible perspiration. When it can be seen in drops, 
it is called sensible perspiration. 

Experiment. Put the hand into a dry glass jar, and wind 
around the wrist and mouth of the jar a handkerchief. In a 
few minutes, the jar will be covered with moisture from the 
hand. 

354. Perspiration is very necessary to health. During 
twenty-four hours, from twenty to thirty ounces of waste, 
useless matter pass out of the body by these ducts, or 
through the pores of the skin. 


Fig. 70. 



Fig. 70. 1, 1, The ridges of the skin cut perpendicularly. 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 
The furrows or wrinkles of the same. 3, The cuticle. 4, 4,4, The colored 
layer of the cuticle. 5, 5, The cutis vera. 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, The points, or 
pa-pil'lce, each of which answers to the line on the external surface of the 
skin. 7, 7, Small furrows between the papilla;. 8, 8, 8, 8, The deeper 
furrows between each couple of the papillae. 9, 9, 9, Cells filled with fat. 
10,10,10, The adipose layer, with numerous fat vesicles, li, 11, 11, Fi¬ 
bres of the adipose tissue. 12, Two hairs. 13, A perspiratory gland, with 
its spiral duct. 14, Another perspiratory gland, with a duct less spiral. 
15, 15, Oil-glands, with ducts opening into the sheath of the hair, (12.) 


What is sensible perspiration ? Give an experiment. 354. How 
many ounces of waste matter pass through the pores of the skin in 
twenty-four hours ? Describe fig. 70. 





THE SKIN. 


101 


PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 

355. If perspiration be checked by any means, the waste 
matter that should pass through the skin is carried to organs 
within the body, causing pain and sickness. 

356. Perspiration not only contain^ water, but salt, oil, 
rust of iron, and other materials. 

357. The watery portion is absorbed by the clothing, or 
evaporates. The salt, &c., if not removed by bathing, or by 
friction of the clothing, remains upon the skin, closing up the 
pores, like a kind of varnish. 

358. To keep the pores of the skin open, it is necessary 
to bathe the whole body frequently, as perspiration is not con¬ 
fined to the face and hands. 

Observation. Cleansing a shirt by washing the wristbands 
and collar only, would be as worthy of commendation, as 
washing the face and hands only to cleanse the skin of 
impurities. 

359. Cold water — or water at about 70° in summer, and 
80° in winter — is more strengthening to the system than 
water that is warmer. 

360. No person should bathe when the body is fatigued, 
either by mental or physical labor, or immediately after a 
meal. 

361. The best time for bathing, particularly for sick per¬ 
sons, is about two hours after breakfast. Persons in health 
may bathe in the morning or in the evening. 

362. The simplest, and, perhaps, the best method of bath¬ 
ing, is the sponge bath. In this, but a small portion of the 

355. What is the effect if perspiration be checked ? 356. What does 

perspiration contain ? 357. What becomes of the watery portion ? Of 
the salt, &c. ? 358. Why is it necessary to bathe ? 359. What temper¬ 
ature of water is best for the system ? 360. When should persons not 

bathe. 1 ' 361. When should persons bathe ? 362. What method is the 

simplest for bathing ? 

9 * 



102 


THE SKIN. 


surface of the skin is exposed to the air, and the brisk rub¬ 
bing that immediately follows the wet sponge, prevents a 
chill of the skin. 

363. No colds would be contracted in bathing, if persons 
would wipe dry, and use friction with a coarse towel or flesh¬ 
brush, until redness or warmth of the skin is produced. 

364. Perspiration may be checked by diminishing the 
circulation of blood in the skin. This may be done by wear¬ 
ing clothing which is too tight, or by want of clothing. 

365. Any article of dress is warmer upon the body, when 
there is a layer of air between it and the skin. 

Example. A loose mitten is warmer than a tight glove, 
and a large boot than one that fits snugly. 

366. That kind of cloth is best, to prevent the skin being 
chilled, which contains air between its meshes. For this 
reason, woollen is better than silk, cotton than linen. 

367. When a person has been exercising, and the skin is 
wet with perspiration, an extra garment, as a shawl or over¬ 
coat, should be put on, when riding, or sitting to rest. By 
observing this suggestion, disease will be prevented. 

368. Again, when a person has been actively exercising, 
a shade or current of air should be avoided, when sitting to 
rest. It is better to keep up the action of the skin, while 
under the rays of a summer’s sun. 

369. In the evening, when the system has been exhausted 
with labor, more clothing is needed to prevent a chill, than 
in the morning, when the body has been refreshed by sleep. 


Why is it preferred ? 363. How are colds prevented when bath¬ 
ing ? 364. Does the circulation of the blood have an influence on 

perspfration ? 365. Is clothing warmer when there is a layer of air 

between it and the body ? Give an example. 366. Why is woollen 
cloth warmer than silk ? 367. When we sit or ride immediately after 

violent exercise, do we need more clothing ? 368. Should we sit in 

a current of air when perspiring freely"? 369. What part of the day 
do we need the most clothing ? 



THE SKIN. 


103 


370. Change of clothing from thick to thin should be 
made in the morning, and not in the evening, as the custom 
is with many who dress for evening entertainments. 

371. To prevent rheumatism and many other diseases, 
reaction, or warmth of the skin, should be induced as soon as 
a chill is contracted. 

372. A frequent change of apparel is necessary, as the 
fibres of the cloth become covered with the waste matter 
contained in the perspiration. A neglect of this is one 
cause of disease with many persons, particularly the poorer 
classes in the community. 

373. The clothing in which we sleep, as well as beds and 
bed-clothes, should,be aired every day. If this be not done, 
the moist bedding will cause a chill, and the perspired matter 
may be carried into the system of the next occupant. Many 
diseases are thus contracted. 

374. When the clothing has been wet either by rain or 
free perspiration, replace it with dry apparel, as the conver¬ 
sion of the moisture into vapor, or “ drying the clothing,” 
while on, extracts heat from the system, and causes a “ cold,” 
or chill. 

375. In all diseases, when the skin is pale and dry, or 
covered with scales like bran, bathing the whole body, ap¬ 
plying friction and proper clothing, will be found beneficial. 

376. The amount of clothing that should be worn de¬ 
pends upon the employment, age, and health of the person. 
No more should be worn than is sufficient to keep up an equal 
and healthy action of the skin. 


370. What is the best time for changing thick clothing for thin ? 
372. Why is it necessary to change clothing frequently ? 373. Should 

bed and bed-clothes that are used be aired everyday? 374. What is 
the reason that chills are usually felt when wet clothing is allowed to 
dry on the body ? 375. How can a pale, dry skin become healthy ? 

376. How much clothing should be worn ? 



104 


THE SKIN. 


377. An excessive, as well as an insufficient, amount 
of clothing is alike injurious. The custom of wearing an 
undue amount on some parts of the body, and leaving ex¬ 
posed the arms and upper part of the chest, cannot be too 
highly censured. 

378. When any portion of the skin has been frozen, 
apply ice, snow, or cold water. The fire and a warm room 
should be avoided. If the frozen parts blister, treat them as 
you would burns. 

379. In scalds and burns, when the skin simply looks red, 
and there is no blister, apply cold water constantly, to prevent 
a blister. 

380. If a blister be formed, and the external skin be not 
broken, apply cold water, as long as the smarting pain con¬ 
tinues. After the pain has subsided, cover the blistered part 
with a patch of cotton or linen cloth, on which is spread lard 
and bees-wax. 

381. If the external skin be removed, apply lime-water 
mixed with “ sweet oil,” fresh cream, or lard and bees-wax. 

382. When the dressings are applied, they should not 
be removed until they become dry and hard. 


377. Is too much, as well as too little, clothing injurious ? 378. What 
should be applied when the skin is frozen ? 379. In scalds or burns, 

when the skin simply looks red, what is necessary? 380. What is 
necessary if a blister be formed ? 381. What is necessary if the 

external skin be removed? 382. How often should the dressings 
be removed ? 



CHAPTER XII. 


THE FIVE SENSES. 


383. The body not only has organs which promote its 
growth, but it has means by which the mind becomes ac¬ 
quainted with external objects. This communication is 
through the senses. 


SENSE OF TOUCH. 

384. This sense enables us to tell whether any thing is 
rough or smooth, cold or hot, sharp or blunt. 

385. It resides in the nerves of the skin. Under the 
cuticle are found projecting points, called papilla , (fig. 70,) 
to each of which a branch of a sensitive nerve is sent. 

Observation. When the skin is suddenly contracted, these 
points appear more prominent, and are called “ goose flesh.” 

386. Where sensation is most acute, we find the greatest 
number of nerves, and those of the largest size, as at the ends 
of the fingers and lips. 

387. Blind persons, by whom the beauties of the external 
world cannot be seen, cultivate this sense to such a degree 
that they can distinguish objects with great accuracy. 


383. Through what means does the mind become acquainted with 
external objects? 384. Of what use is the sense of touch? 385. 
Where does this sense reside ? 386. Why is sensation more acute 

on the lips and ends of the fingers, than any other part of the body ? 
387. What persons cultivate this sense to a great degree? 



106 


THE FIVE SENSES. 


SENSE OF TASTE. 

388. It is by this sense that we discern the flavor of any 
thing. 

389. The tongue is the principal agent of taste, though 
the mouth and upper part of the throat share in this function. 
This sensation is carried to the brain by the gus'ta-to-ry nerve. 
Many branches of this nerve are distributed to the points upon 
the surface of the tongue. 

Fig. 71. 



Fig. 71. The distribution of the gustatory nerve. 1, The orbit for the 
eye. 2, The upper jaw. 3, The tongue. 4, The lower jaw. 5, The fifth 
pair of nerves. 6, The first branch of this nerve, that goes to the eye. 9, 
10, 11, 12, 13, 14, Divisions of this branch. 7, The second branch of the 
fifth pair of nerves, that goes to the teeth of the upper jaw. 15, 16, 17,18, 
19, 20, Divisions of this branch. 8, The third branch of the fifth pair, that 
goes to the tongue and teeth of the lower jaw. 23, The division of this 
branch that goes to the tongue. This is the nerve of taste. 24, The division 
that goes to the teeth of the lower jaw. 


388. By what sense do we know the flavor of any thing ? 389. Is 

the tongue the principal agent of taste P How is this sensation carried 
to the brain ? Describe fig. 71. 



THE FIVE SENSES. 


107 


Observation . By applying strong acids, as vinegar, to the 
tongue, with a hair pencil, these points will become curiously 
lengthened. 

390. This sense enables us to select proper food. 

391. Substances, to be tasted, must be either naturally 
fluid, or dissolved by the saliva. 

392. The flavor of moist substances is immediately per¬ 
ceived when they come in contact with the end of the tongue. 
But, if dry and hard, they must be acted upon by the saliva, 
and then the sensation will be felt at the back part of the 
mouth. 

Observation. Many persons impair their taste by bad 
habits, as chewing and smoking tobacco, and using stimu¬ 
lating drinks, &c. These indulgences lessen the sensibility 
of the nerve, and destroy the natural relish for food. 

SENSE OF SMELL. 


Fig. 72. 



Fig. 72. A side view of the passages of the nostrils, and the distribution 
of the olfactory nerve. 4, The olfactory nerve. 5, The fine and curious 
divisions of this nerve on the membrane of the nose. 


Give observation. 390. What is the use of this sense ? 391. In 
what states must substances be, in order to be tasted ? 392. What 

part of the tongue first perceives the taste of moist substances ? If 
dry and solid, what is necessary ? How is taste impaired ? What 
does fig. 72 represent ? 




108 


THE FIVE SENSES. 


393. This sense enables us to discern the odor or scent 
of any thing. When the air rushes through the nostrils, the 
odoriferous particles of matter come in contact with the fine 
nerves, that are spread upon the membrane that lines the 
nose or nostrils, and the impression is carried to the brain 
by the olfactory nerve. 

394. This sense, with that of taste, aids man, as well as 
the inferior animals, in selecting proper food, and it also gives 
us pleasure by the inhalation of agreeable odors. When 
much used, it becomes very acute. 

395. The North American Indians can easily distinguish 
different tribes, and different persons of the same tribe, by 
the odor of their bodies. 

396. This sense is seen to be remarkably acute in the 
dog; he will trace his master’s footsteps through thickly- 
crowded streets, and distinguish them from thousands of 
others; he will track the hare over the ground for miles, 
guided only by the odor that it leaves in its flight. 

397. Acuteness of smell requires that the brain and 
nerve of smell be healthy, and that the membrane that lines 
the nose be thin and moist. 

398. Any influence that diminishes the sensibility of the 
nerves, thickens the membrane, or renders it dry, impairs this 
sense. 

Observation. Snuff, when introduced into the nose, not 
only diminishes the sensibility of the nerves, but thickens 
the lining membrane. This thickening of the membrane 
obstructs the passage of air through the nostrils, and obliges 
“ snuff-takers ” to open their mouths when they breathe. 

393. By what sense do we discern the odor of any thing ? How is 
the odor or smell of bodies perceived ? 394. What is the use of this 

sense ? Does use render it more acute ? 395. What is said of this 

sense among the North Americah Indians ? 396. In the dog ? 397. 

What does acuteness of smell require ? 398. What will impair this 

sense ? What effect has snuff upon the nasal organ ? 




THE FIVE SENSES. 


109 


THE SENSE OF HEARING. 

399. Hearing is the sense that enables us to perceive 
sound, through the organ called the ear. 

400. The nerve that communicates sound to the brain, is 
called auditory. 

401. The ear is divided by anatomists into three parts: 
1st, the External ear; 29, the Middle ear, or Tym'jpa-num; 
3d, the Internal ear, or Lab'y-rinth. 

402. The external ear is composed of cartilage. It has 
many ridges and furrows, arising from the folds of the carti¬ 
lage that form it. 


Fig. 73. 



Fig. 73. a, The external ear. c, The tube that leads to the middle ear. 
g, The drum of the ear. e, k, The middle ear. b, f h, The internal ear. 
«, The tube that leads to the throat, ( Eu-sta'chi-an .) d, The auditory nerve. 


399. Through what organ is sound perceived ? 400. What nerve 
communicates sound to the brain ? 401. Into how many parts is the 

ear divided ? Name them? 402. Give tire structure of the external 
ear. What is represented by fig. 73? 

10 



110 


THE FIVE SENSES. 


403. The use of the external ear is to catch and convey 
sounds into the tube, which extends inward. 

Observation. Many animals have small muscles that move 
the ear, in order to catch sounds from every direction. The 
hare, rabbit, and horse, afford good examples. 

404. At the internal extremity of the tube, is a thin, semi¬ 
transparent membrane, that separates the external from the 
middle ear. It is called Mem'bra-na Tym'pa-ni, or “ drum 
of the ear.” 

405. This and the bitter wax found around the hairs in 
the tube, prevent insects from entering the head. 


Fig. 74. 



Fig. 74. A view of the labyrinth laid open. This figure is highly mag¬ 
nified. 1,1, The coch'le-a , or snail shell. 2 and 3, Two channels, that wind 
two and a half turns around a central point, (5.) 7, The central portion 
of the labyrinth, called the ves'ti-bule. 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, and 
18, The semicircular canals. The cochlea and semicircular canals open 
into the vestibule. 

403. What is the use of the external ear ? Give the observation. 
404. What is found at the internal extremity of the tube ? What is 
it called ? 405. How are insects prevented from entering the head ? 
Explain fig. 74. 




THE FIVE SENSES. 


Ill 


406. The middle ear is connected with the internal and 
most important cavity, by four small bones. These are so 
arranged, as to form a chain from the drum of the ear to 
the labyrinth. 

407. From the middle ear, a tube opens into the back 
part of the throat. (Figs. 73 and 76.) This tube admits air to 
this cavity of the ear, as the opening in the side of a drum 
admits air into the interior of that instrument. 

Observation. If this tube be obstructed by disease of the 
throat, it impairs hearing, as the closing of the hole in the 
side of the drum diminishes the sound. 


Fig. 75. 



Fig. 75. A view of the auditory nerve. 1, The spinal cord. 2, 3, 4, 
The lower part of the brain. 7, The auditory nerve. 12, A branch to the 
semicircular canals. 13, A branch to the cochlea. 

408. The internal ear is very intricate, and the uses of 
its various parts are not well known. It is called the laby¬ 
rinth , from its many windings. 

409. This part of the ear is the only one that is absolutely 
essential in hearing. Other parts, already described, may be 
removed, and yet the person may hear. 


406. How is the middle ear connected with the internal ear ? 407. 
How does the middle ear coipmunicate with the throat ? What is 
represented by fig. 75 ? 408. Give the structure of the internal ear. 
409. What part of the ear is absolutely necessary in hearing ? May 
the parts of the external and middle ear be removed, and the person 
bear. 




112 


THE FIVE SENSES. 


410. The nerve of hearing is spread upon the inner sur¬ 
face of the membrane that lines the intricate windings of the 
internal ear. 

411. The vibrations of the air, producing an influence 
called sound , are collected by the external ear, and conducted 
through the tube (1, fig. 76) to the drum of the ear. This 
causes a vibration of the drum of the ear, (2.) 


Fig. 76. 



Fig. 76. A view of all the parts of the ear. 1, The tube that leads to 
the internal ear. 2, The drum of the ear. 3, 4, 5, The bones of the ear. 
7, The central part of the labyrinth. 8, 9, 10, The semicircular canals. 
11, 12, The channels of the cochlea. 13, The auditory nerve. 14, The 
channel from the middle ear to the throat. 

412. This vibration passes along the chain of bones, (3,4, 
5.) The bone (5) communicates with the internal ear, (7.) 
From the internal ear the impression is carried to the brain 
by the nerve, (13.) (See fig. 75.) 


410. Where is the nerve of hearing spread ? 411. Explain, by fig. 

76, how sound is conveyed to the middle ear. 


















THE FIVE SENSES. 


113 


413. The common causes of impaired hearing are, a 
thickening of the drum of the ear, and an accumulation of 
wax upon its exterior surface. 

414. This accumulated wax can be removed by soften¬ 
ing it with oil dropped into the ear, followed by injections of 
warm soap-suds. 

415. It is injurious to put pins into the ear, as they fre¬ 
quently cause inflammation. 

416. When worms and insects find their way into the 
ear, they can usually be driven out, by dropping in warm 
olive oil. 


SENSE OF SEEING. 

417. The beautiful instrument by which we perceive the 
forms, colors, and dimensions of bodies that surround us, is 
the Eye. 

418. This instrument, so useful to us, is shaped like a 
globe, and is placed in a cavity in front of the skull. 

419. This hollow globe, or ball, is filled with certain sub¬ 
stances called Hu'mors. 

420. The sides of the globe are composed of three mem¬ 
branes, or coats. 

421. The transparent part of the eye in front, which pro¬ 
jects more than the rest of the globe, is called the Cor'ne-a. 
It is shaped like the crystal of a watch, and, in health, gives 
the eye its sparkling brilliancy. 

422. The outermost coat, called Scle-rot'i-ca, is firm, and 


413. Give some causes of impaired hearing. 314. How can the 
accumulation of wax be removed ? 415. Is it injurious to put pins 

into the ear? 416. How can insects be removed from the ear ? 417. 

By what organ do we perceive objects? 418. What is its shape, and 
where is it placed 3 419. With what is the globe of the eye filled? 

420. What composes the sides of this globe ? 421. Where is the cor¬ 

nea of the eye ? Give its structure. 422. What is the outermost 
coat called ? 


10* 



114 


THE FIVE SENSES. 


its color white; hence it is frequently called the “ white of 
the eye.” 

Fig. 77 



Fig. 77. A section of the globe of the eye. 1, The sclerotic coat. 2, 
The cornea. This connects with the sclerotic coat by a bevelled edge. 
3, The choroid coat. 6, 6, The iris. 7, The pupil. 8, The retina. 10,11, 
11, Chambers or cavities of the eye that contain the aqueous humor. 12, 
The crystalline lens. 13, The vitreous humor. 15, The optic nerve. 14, 
16, One of the arteries of the eye. 

423. From its toughness, it forms the principal support to 
the eye. This membrane, with the cornea in front, encloses 
the eye. 

424. The next membrane is of a dark color upon its inner 
surface, and, on account of its many blood-vessels, is called 
the Clio'roid coat. 

425. The innermost coat is called the Ret'i-jia, from its 
resemblance to a net. It is the immediate seat of vision. 

426. A short distance behind the cornea is found the most 
delicate of all the muscles of the body; it is called the Iris. 
This part gives the blue, gray, or black color to the eye. 

427. In the centre of the iris is an opening called the 


Explain fig. 77. 423. What is the use of the sclerotica ? 424. De¬ 
scribe the next coat. 425. What is the innermost coat called ? 426. 
Where is the iris found ? What gives the eye its blue or black color ? 
427. What is situated in the centre of the iris ? 





THE FIVE SENSES. 


115 


Pu'pil* which enlarges or contracts, according to the quan¬ 
tity of light that falls upon the eye. 

428. The space between the cornea and iris is filled with 
the A'que-ous, or watery humor. 


Fig. 78. 



Fig. 78. A transverse section of the eye, seen from within. 1, The 
divided edge of the three coats. 2, The pupil. 3, The iris. 4, The cil¬ 
iary processes. 5, The scolloped border of the retina. 

429. Behind the aqueous humor and pupil lies the Crys'- 
tal-line Lens. Its form is different on the two sides. When 
boiled, it may be separated into layers like those of an 
onion. 

Observation. The lens in the eye of a fish is round, 
like a globe, and has the same appearance, when boiled, as 
the lens of the human eye. 

430. The largest and innermost humor is called the Vit'- 
re-ous. It occupies more than two thirds of the whole inte¬ 
rior of the globe of the eye. 

* From pu'pa, Latin, a babe; because it reflects the diminished image 
of the person who looks upon it. 


428. What fills the space between the cornea and iris ? What does 
fig. 78 show ? 429. Where is the crystalline lens situated ? Does 

the lens in the eye of a fish resemble in structure that of the human 
eye ? 430. What is the largest and innermost humor called ? 



116 


THE FIVE SENSES. 


431. On viewing the part of the eye near the pupil, 
small lines of a lighter color will be seen passing to the outer 
part of the iris; these are called Cil'i-a-ry proc'ess-es. They 
are about sixty in number. 


Fig. 79. 



Fig. 79. The second pair, or optio nerves. 1, 1, The globe of the eye. 
The one on the left is perfect, but the sclerotic coat has been removed from 
that on the right, to show the retina. 2, The crossing of the optic nerve. 
3, 4, A portion of the brain. 5, 6, The commencement of the spinal cord. 
7, 8, 9, 10, II, 12, 13, The origin of nerves. 

432. The optic nerve, which comes from the brain, passes 
through the back of the eye, and forms the netted membrane 
called the retina . 

433. The different coats give form to the eye, while the 
transparent cornea and humors change the direction of the 
rays of light; so that the rays that leave an object at which 
we look, form upon the retina a small but clear image of that 


431. Where are the ciliary processes? What does fig. 79 show ? 
43*2. Describe the optic nerve. 433. Give the use of the coats and 
humors of the eye. How is the image of objects seen ? 



THE FIVE SENSES. 


117 


object. The impression of the image upon the retina is 
carried to the brain through the optic nerve. 

434. When the cornea and crystalline lens become flat¬ 
tened, as in old age, the image is formed beyond the retina. 
This defect is remedied by wearing convex glasses. 

435. When the cornea and crystalline lens are too con¬ 
vex, an image of the object will be formed before the retina. 
This defect of the eye is called raear-sightedness. To give 
such persons longer vision, it is necessary to wear concave 
glasses. 


Fig. 80. 



6 


Fig. 80. a, The lachrymal gland, b, Ducts leading from the lachrymal 

f land to the upper eyelid, c, c, Ducts at the inner angle of the eyelids. 

'hese open into the nasal sac, ( d .) e, The nasal duct that opens into the 
nose. 

Observation. Persons that train the eye to look at distant 
objects, as hunters and sailors, are rarely near-sighted; 
while those who view objects near the eye, as watch-makers 
and students, are frequently near-sighted. 


434. What is the result when the image is formed beyond the reti¬ 
na ? How is the defect remedied ? 435. What is the result when 

the image is formed before the retina ? How can this defect be reme¬ 
died ? Explain fig. 80. Give the observation. 



118 


THE FIVE SENSES. 


436. Children should be taught to view objects at differ¬ 
ent distances, in order that the eye may adapt itself to view 
objects near as well as remote. 

437. The eye is protected from external injury by the 
two movable curtains, called eyelids. These are opened 
and closed by small muscles. 

438. They are formed of thin cartilage, placed under the 
skin, that fits the globe of the eye. Attached to the eyelids 
are the eyelashes. When the eye is closed, they interlace, 
and thus prevent particles of matter from injuring this deli¬ 
cate organ. 

439. The eyelids not only protect the eye, by closing it 
in front, from too brilliant rays of light, and from dust, but 
distribute equally over the globe of the eye the fluid which 
moistens it. 

440. This fluid flows from small glands above the eye, 
called Lach'ry-mal (tear) glands. Several minute ducts con¬ 
vey it to the eye. It is carried from the eye to the ducts 
that open upon the edge of the eyelid, near the nose. 

441. These two small ducts usually convey the fluid 
away as quickly as it is formed; but when the eye is irritated, 
or the mind affected by various emotions, it flows to the eye 
too rapidly to be conveyed to the nose, and it then courses 
down the cheek in the form .of tears. 

442. The cavities or orbits of the eye are lined with a 
thick cushion of fat, in order that the eye may move in all 
directions with perfect freedom and without friction. 

443. The eye is moved by six muscles, one extremity of 

437. How is the eye protected from injury ? 438. How are they 

formed ? What are attached to the eyelids ? 439. What is the use 

of the eyelids ? 440. Where are the tears formed ? How is it con¬ 

veyed to the eyes? How from the eyes? 441. What is the effect 
when the eye is irritated ? 442. What are the orbits of the eye 

lined with ? What is its use ? 443. How many muscles move the 
eye ? 



THE FIVE SENSES. 


119 


which is attached to the bones of the orbit; the other extrem¬ 
ity to the globe of the eye. 


Fig. 81. 



Fig. 81. A view of the eye and its muscles, a, b, c, d, e, Five of these 
muscles, f, The optic nerve. The bone is seen above and below the eye. 

444. Stra-bis'mus (cross-eye) is caused by a contraction 
of one of these muscles. If the external muscle is too short, 
the eye is turned out ; if the internal muscle is contracted, 
the eye is turned inward toward the nose. 

Observation. The vision of a “ cross-eye” is always de¬ 
fective. This defect can be remedied by a surgical operation, 
which corrects also the position of the eye. 

445. In using the eye, it should be fixed on an object but 
a short time, before it is allowed to rest. Nor should it be 


444. How is strabismus, or “cross-eye,” produced? How is the 
vision of such eyes ? Can the defect be remedied ? 445. How 

should the eye be used? 




120 


THE FIVE SENSES. 


used in intense light but a few minutes, as a glare of light 
frequently produces blindness. 

446. Small particles or dust may become lodged in the eye, 
and produce much inconvenience, which is often increased 
by harsh attempts to remove them. The person should be 
placed before a strong light, the lids held open with one 
hand, or by another person, and the particles brushed away 
with the corner of a fine linen or silk handkerchief. 

447. Sometimes the substance is concealed under the 
upper eyelid, and it may then be exposed by turning back 
the lid in the following manner : Take a knitting-needle, or 
small slender piece of stick which is perfectly smooth, and 
place it over the upper lid, in contact with and just under the 
edge of the orbit; then, holding it firmly, seize the lashes 
with the fingers of the disengaged hand, and gently turn the 
lid back over the stick or needle. You can then examine 
the inner side of the lid, and remove any substance that may 
have been there concealed. Too many trials ought not to 
be made, if unsuccessful, as much inflammation may be in¬ 
duced ; but a surgeon, in such cases, ought to be consulted 
as soon as possible. 

448. Eye-stones ought never to be placed in the eye, as 
they often cause more pain and irritation than the evil which 
they are intended to remedy. 


446. How can dust and other small particles be removed from the 
eye ? 447. How removed from the upper eyelid ? 448. Ought eye- 
stones to be used? 




CHAPTER XIII. 


ABSORPTION. 

449. “ By Absorption is meant the removal of the soft 
or hard parts of the body, or of substances placed in contact 
with these parts.” 

Illustration. When emaciation takes place in consump¬ 
tion, or when the fluid in the limbs of a dropsical person 
has disappeared, the fat and the fluid are said to have been 
absorbed. 

450. Absorption is of two kinds. 1st. The process by 
which food and drink are removed from the stomach and 
intestines, and conveyed into the system, for its growth and 
nourishment. 

451. 2d. The action of the absorbent vessels and glands, 
and also the small veins, by which the waste material from 
the different organs is poured into the circulating torrent and 
carried out of the body. 

452. The absorbent vessels are very minute at their com¬ 
mencement ; so much so, that they cannot be seen without 
the aid of a magnifying glass. These small ducts unite and 
form larger trunks, that open into the veins. 

453. They are found in every part of the body, except 
the brain. The knotted appearance of these vessels is owing 
to the arrangement of their internal coats, to form valves. 


449. What is meant by absorption? Give an illustration. 450. 
How many kinds of absorption ? Give the 1st. 451. Give the 2d. 
452. What is said of the size of the absorbent vessels ? 453. Where 
are they found P 


11 



122 


ABSORPTION 


\ 




Fig. 82. 



































ABSORPTION. 


123 


. f 1 |* St A re P r esentation of the absorbent vessels and glands. 1, 2, 3, 
4, 0, b, I he absorbent vessels and glands of the lower limbs. 7, Lymphatic 
glands. 8, The commencement of the thoracic duct. 9, The absorbents 
of the kidney. 10, Of the stomach. 11, Of the liver. 12, 12, The lungs. 13, 
14, lo, The absorbents and glands of the arm. 16, 17, 18, Of the face and 
neck. 19, 20, Large veins. 21, The thoracic duct. 26, The absorbents 
ol the heart. * 

454. In certain parts of the body, as the neck, these ves¬ 
sels pass through small, soft bodies, called lym-phat'ic glands. 

Observation. Sometimes, when we are afflicted with a 
cold, these glands in the neck enlarge; they are usually 
called “ kernels.” 

455. When little or no food is taken into the stomach, 
life is sustained by the absorbent vessels, which imbibe, or 
suck up, particles of fat, and convey them into the veins. It 
is the removal of the fat that causes the lean appearance of 
a person recovering from sickness. In consumption, not 
only the fat, but more solid parts of the body, are removed by 
absorption. 

456. Bears and other animals, that live in a half-torpid 
state during the winter, derive their nourishment from the 
same source. 

457. The most important absorbing surfaces are the 
stomach, intestines, lungs, and skin. Through the lungs 
absorption is not only very great, but extremely rapid. 

Illustrations. 1st. In inhaling sulphuric ether, or letheon, 
it is introduced into the vessels of the lungs in the form of 
vapor, and through them it is rapidly conveyed to the brain, 
and thus influences the nervous system. 

2d. Tobacco in a state of minute division, as the smoke 
of a cigar or pipe, is carried into the system by the action 
of the absorbent vessels of the lungs. This is the reason 


What does fig. 82 represent? 454. What are lymphatic glands? 
Are these glands ever seen ? 455. How is life sustained when we 

cannot take food ? 456. What sustains those animals that live in a 

half-torpid state during the winter ? 457. Name the most important 

absorbing surfaces. What is said of the absorbing power of the lungs-? 
Give illustration 1st. Illustration 2d. 



124 


SECRETION. 


that persons unaccustomed to the smoke of tobacco are 
nauseated by it. It is a violation of the rights of others to 
contaminate or fill the air (which is common property) of 
public rooms and conveyances, and also the streets, by puff- 
ing cigars in them. 

458. It is probable, also, that the poisonous vegetable or 
animal matter which produces fever and other diseases, is in 
this way introduced into the body. 

459. This affords another reason why the rooms of sick 
persons should be kept clean and well ventilated. As a 
general rule, no person should attend another that is sick 
more than twelve hours at a time. 


SECRETION. 

460. To secrete means to separate. The curious and 
mysterious operation of secretion is performed by the capil¬ 
lary vessels. 

461. The material that forms the bones, muscles, skin, 
&c., is deposited in the appropriate places by these minute 
vessels. This may be called nutritive secretion. 


Fig. 83. 



Fig. 83. A secretory follicle. An artery is seen, which supplies the ma¬ 
terial for its secretion. Follicles are also supplied with veins and organic 
nerves. 

462. The fluids that aid in the digestion of food, as the 
saliva, gastric juice, bile, pancreatic juice, and synovia, are 
all the result of secretion. 


458. How is it probable that diseases are contracted ? 459. How 
long should a person attend another that is sick ? 460. What is the 

meaning of secrete? How is the operation of secretion performed? 
461. Define nutritive secretion. What does fig. 83 represent ? 462. 
Name some fluids that are the result of secretion. 



SECRETION. 


125 


463. The fluids that carry the waste, useless matter from 
the system, as the perspiration and product of the kidneys, 
are examples of another result of secretion. 

464. Another kind of secretion is performed by small 
pouches, called Fol'li-cles. The slimy fluid that they secrete 
is thrown upon the surface of membranes, by minute open- 
ings. The mucus of the lips, windpipe, and bronchial tubes 
affords examples of this kind of secretion. 

465. The blood contains all the materials of secretion. 
The different appearances in the secretory fluids, as the 
yellow, ropy bile, the briny tear, and the tasteless saliva, are 
chiefly owing to the action of small bodies, called glands . 

466. Glands are formed of minute arteries, veins, and 
tubes, wound together. They vary in size from a mustard 
seed to that of the liver, which weighs from two to four 
pounds. 


Fig. 84. 



Fig. 84. a, a , Secretory gland, b , b, Minute ducts that are spread 
through the glands. These unite to form the main duct, c. 

467. Every gland, however minute, has a small duct for 
collecting and carrying off* the secreted fluid. 


463. Is perspiration a product of secretion ? 464. What small bodies 

secrete mucus ? 465. From what are all the different secretions formed ? 
What causes the difference in the appearances of the secretions ? 466. 
Describe glands. 467. Do the smallest glands have ducts ? 

11 * 



126 


ANIMAL HEAT. 


468. The secretions are much influenced by mental emo¬ 
tions. If we smell savory food, there will be an increased 
flow of saliva in the mouth; if we hear the intelligence of 
the death of a cherished friend, the tear will quickly course 
down the cheek. 

469. Unless the secretions are regularly maintained, dis¬ 
ease will be the final result. Let the secretions from the 
skin be suppressed, and fever or some internal disease will 
be produced. If the bile be impeded, digestion will be im¬ 
paired. If other secretions be suppressed, it will cause a 
derangement in the functions of the various internal organs. 

ANIMAL HEAT. 

470. Various opinions exist among physiologists in regard 
to the manner in which the warmth of the system is main¬ 
tained. Observation and experiment show that heat is pro¬ 
duced by an action among the particles of matter in the body. 

471. In breathing, carbon passes from the body, and oxy¬ 
gen is received. This change of matter is attended by a 
change of temperature. In nutrition, fluids are converted 
into solids; in absorption, solids are changed into fluids; in 
secretion, old particles of matter are removed from the blood, 
and new particles are formed; in digestion, food is changed 
into chyle. In all these processes, heat is produced. 

472. All of these changes are effected in the capillary 
vessels, and all require a certain amount of pure blood and 
nervous fluid. It may be concluded, then, that respiration, 
circulation, and nervous influence, all cooperate in producing 
animal heat, or that they are conditions essential to this 
phenomenon. 

468. Are the secretions influenced by mental emotions ? 469. What 
is the effect if secretions be obstructed ? 470. Are the sources of ani¬ 
mal heat well understood ? What do observation and experiment show ? 
471. Name the different processes of the system which produce animal 
heat. 472. Where are all of these changes effected ? What functions 
cooperate in the production of animal heat ? 



CHAPTER XIV . 


MEANS OF PRESERVING THE HEALTH. 

473. Our bodies are constituted according to certain 
laws, and every person should learn these laws, in order to 
regulate his actions and duties, so that life may be prolonged, 
and the power of enjoyment, activity, and usefulness, con¬ 
tinue while life lasts. 

474. It is a law of the muscles, that they should either be 
used in some vocation, or called into action by some social 
play and active sport. (As to the proper time for calling the 
muscles into action, see Practical Suggestions, Chap. IV.) 

475. All admit that food is necessary to sustain life; and 
unless it be of a proper quality, taken in proper quantities, 
and at proper times, the functions of the digestive organs 
will be deranged, and disease produced. (See Practical 
Suggestions, Chap. VI.) 

476. Pure air is essential to the full enjoyment of health. 
The close, impure air of heated rooms and crowded assem¬ 
blies may be breathed, and the effect be so gradual as not to 
arrest attention; yet it is a violation of the physical laws, and, 
sooner or later, we pay the penalty in disease and suffering. 
(See Practical Suggestions, Chap. VIII.) 


473. Why is it incumbent on every person to learn the laws of 
health? 474. Give a law of the muscles. 475. In preserving the 
health, is it necessary to give attention to the food which is eaten ? 
Why ? 476. What beside food is essential to the full enjoyment of 

health ? What is said of the impure air of heated rooms and crowded 
assemblies ? 



128 


REMOVAL OF DISEASE. 


477. The body also requires sleep; and if it is not taken 
at the right time, we do not feel a full refreshment from 
“ tired nature’s sweet restorer.” Let youth be taught that 
“early to bed and early to rise” gives him health and its 
attendant blessings. The brain, like other organs of the 
body, should be called into action at proper times. (See 
Practical Suggestions, Chap. X.) 

478. In preserving the health, it is very important that 
the functions of the skin be not deranged; and usually no 
part of the body is so much neglected. (For the means by 
which it may be kept in a healthy state, see Practical Sug¬ 
gestions, Chap. XI.) 

REMOVAL OF DISEASE. 

479. It is seldom that a physician is called in the first 
stages of disease. At this important period, the treatment 
adopted should be proper and judicious, or the sufferings of 
the patient are increased, and life, to a greater or less degree, 
is jeopardized. Hence the utility of knowing what should 
he done , and what should not be done , in order that the health 
may be rapidly regained. 

480. In all instances of acute disease, it is proper to rest , 
not only the body, but the mind. To effect this, the patient 
should cease from muscular exertion, and also withdraw his 
thoughts from study and business operations. This should 
be done, even if the person is but slightly indisposed. 

481. A sick person, whether a child or an adult, should 
not be disturbed by visitors, even if their calls are short. 
The excitement of meeting them is followed by a depression 

477. Should regularity be observed in regard to sleep ? 478. Have 

the functions of the skin great influence in keeping other organs 
healthy ? 479. What is important in the first stages of disease ? 

480. What is proper in all instances of acute disease ? How can it be 
effected ? 481. What effects have calls, though they be short, on the 
sick ? 



REMOVAL OF DISEASE. 


129 


of the nervous system. The more dangerous and apparently 
nearer death the sick person is, the more rigorous should be 
the observance of this suggestion. 

482. The custom of visiting and conversing with sick 
friends during the intervals of daily labor, and particularly on 
Sunday, is a great evil. No person will be guilty of this, 
who cares more for the welfare of the suffering friend than 
the gratification of a sympathetic curiosity. 

Illustration. While attending a Miss B., of N. H., sick 
of fever, I pronounced her better, withdrew medicine, directed 
a simple, low diet, and the exclusion of all visitors. In the 
evening, I was sent for, in haste, to attend her. There was 
a violent relapse of the disease, which continued to increase 
in severity until the fourth day, when death terminated her 
sufferings. I learned that, soon after I gave directions that no 
visitors be admitted into her room, several particular friends 
were permitted to enter the chamber and talk with the sick 
girl. Their conversation produced a severe headache, and, 
to use the language of the patient, “ it seemed as if their talk 
would kill me ; ” and it did kill her. 

483. No solid food should be taken in the first stages of 
disease, even if the affection is slight. The thirst can be 
allayed by drinking cold water, barley-water, and other prep¬ 
arations of this simple character. 

484. When a patient is recovering from illness, the food 
should be simple in quality, and in quantities not so great as 
to oppress the stomach. It should also be given with regu¬ 
larity. “ Eat little and often,” with no regard to regularity, 
is a pernicious practice. 

482. What is said of the custom of calling and conversing with the 
sick during the intervals of daily labor ? Give an illustration. 483. 
Should solid food be taken in the first stages of disease ? How can 
the thirst be allayed ? 484. When the patient is convalescent, how 

should the food be given ? What is said of the practice of eating 
“ little and often ” ? 



130 


REMOVAL OF DISEASE. 


485. Iii all instances, when a physician attends a sick 
person, he should have the special management of the food, 
particularly after the medicine has been withdrawn and the 
patient is convalescent. The prevailing idea that every per¬ 
son may safely advise relative to food, or that the appetite 
of the convalescing person will guide correctly, is dangerous, 
and cannot be too much censured. 

Illustration. In 1832, I attended a Miss H., sick of fever. 
After an illness of a few days, the fever abated, and I direct¬ 
ed a simple, unstimulating diet. Business called me from 
the town two days. During my absence, a sympathizing, 
officious matron called; found her weak, but improving ; and 
told her she needed food to strengthen her ; that “ food was 
made to eat,” and “ it would now do her good.” According¬ 
ly, wine and eggs, with a piece of beefsteak, were prepared, 
and given to the convalescent girl. She ate heartily, and 
the result was a relapse of the fever. For several days, her 
friends watched by her bedside, expecting every hour would 
be her last. She recovered, and her sufferings taught that 
matron a lesson that was not soon forgotten. 

486. It is very important in disease that the skin be Iccpt 
clean. A free action of the vessels of this part of the body 
exerts a great influence in removing disease from the internal 
organs, as well as keeping them in health. If the twenty or 
thirty ounces of waste, hurtful matter, that passes through 
the “pores” of the skin in twenty-four hours, is not re¬ 
moved by frequent bathing and dry rubbing, it deranges the 
action of the vessels that separate this waste matter from the 
blood, and thus increases the disease of the internal organs. 


485. Who should have the special management of food when medi¬ 
cine is withdrawn ? What idea prevails in the community ? Give an 
illustration of the evil effects attending such an idea. 486. Does the 
skin exert a great influence in removing disease from the internal 
organs, as well as in keeping them in health ? 



REMOVAL OF DISEASE. 


131 


487. Every sick person should breathe pure air. The 
purer the blood that courses through the body, the greater 
the energy of the system to remove disease. The confined, 
vitiated air of the sick-chamber not unfrequently prolongs 
disease, and, in many instances, the affection is not only ag¬ 
gravated, but even rendered fatal, by its injurious influences. 

Illustration. 1st. In 1833, I was called, in consultation 
with another physician, to Mr. H., who was much debilitated 
from a long sickness, and was delirious. For several suc¬ 
cessive days he had not slept. His room was kept very warm 
and close, for fear he would “ take cold.” The only change 
that I made in the treatment was to open the door and win¬ 
dow, at a distance from the bed. In a short time, the deliri¬ 
um ceased, and he fell into a quiet slumber. From this time 
he rapidly recovered, and I have no doubt that the delirium 
was the result of breathing impure air. 

2d. Formerly, every precaution was used to prevent per¬ 
sons sick of the small-pox from breathing fresh air. When 
Mrs. Ramsay had this disease in Charleston, S. C., her 
friends, supposing that life was extinct, caused her body to 
be removed from the house to an open shed. The pure air 
revived the vital spark. The result probably would have 
been different, had she been kept a few hours longer in the 
confined, vitiated air. 

488. Medicine is sometimes necessary to assist the natu¬ 
ral powers of the system to remove disease; but it is only an 
assistant. While emetics are occasionally useful in re¬ 
moving food and other articles from the stomach, that would 
cause disease if suffered to remain, and cathartics are 
valuable, in some instances, to relieve the intestines of irri- 


487. Why should every sick person, particularly, breathe pure air? 
Are not diseases prolonged, and even rendered fatal, from breathing 
the impure, vitiated air of the sick-chamber? Give illustration 1st. 
Give illustration 2d. 488. What is said of the use of medicine ? 



132 


DIRECTIONS FOR NURSES. 


tating residuum, yet the frequent administration of either 
will cause serious disease. The same remarks may be made 
relative to the use of opium, to relieve pain, and of stimu¬ 
lating bitters, to create appetite. 

489. Although medicine is useful in some instances, yet, 
in a great proportion of the cases of disease, including fevers 
and inflammations of all kinds, attention to the laws of health 
will tend to relieve the system from disease, more certainly 
and speedily, and with less danger, than when medicines are 
administered. 

490. Thomas Jefferson, in writing to Dr. Wistar, of 
Philadelphia, said, “ I would have the physician learn the 
limit of his art.” I would say, Have the matrons, and those 
who are continually advising “ herb teas, pills, powders, bit¬ 
ters,” and other “ cure-alls,” for any complaint, labelled with 
some popular name, learn the limits of their duty, namely, 
attention to the laws of health. Future generations will look 
upon the administration of medicine, as now pursued, with 
as much astonishment and regret, as we view the habitual 
use of intoxicating drinks. The rule of every family, and 
each individual, should be, to touch not, taste not, of medi¬ 
cine of any kind, except when directed by a well-educated 
and honest physician, (sudden disease from accidents ex¬ 
cepted.) 


DIRECTIONS FOR NURSES. 

491. The nurse requires knowledge and practice to enable 
her to discharge aright her duty to the patient, as much as 
the physician and surgeon do to perform what is incumbent 
on them. 


489. What is said of its use in fevers and many other cases of dis¬ 
ease P 490. What remark by Thomas Jefferson to Dr. Wistar? 
What should matrons learn ? What should be the rule of every per¬ 
son in regard to taking medicine ? What exception? 491. Does the 
nurse require knowledge and practice in her employment, as well as 
the physician ? 




DIRECTIONS FOR NURSES. 133 

492. Woman, from her constitution and habits, is the 
natural nurse of the sick; and, in general, no small portion 
of her time is spent in ministering at the couch of disease 
and suffering. As the young and vigorous, as well as the 
aged and the infirm, are liable to be laid upon the bed of 
sickness, by an epidemic, or imprudent exposure, or by some 
accident, it is therefore necessary that the girl, as well as the 
matron, may know how she can render services in an efficient 
and proper manner. No girl should consider her education 
complete who is not acquainted with the principles of the 
duties of a general nurse ai\d a temporary watcher. 

493. It is to be regretted, that, while we have medical 
schools and colleges to educate physicians, there is no insti¬ 
tution to educate nurses in their equally responsible station. 
In the absence of such institutions, the defect can be reme¬ 
died, to some extent, by teaching every girl practical phys¬ 
iology or the laws of health. To make such knowledge 
more available and complete, attention is invited to the follow¬ 
ing suggestions relative to the practical duties of a nurse. 

494. Bathing. The nurse, before commencing to bathe 
the patient, should provide herself with water, two towels, a 
sponge, a piece of soft flannel, and a sheet. 

495. When the patient is feeble, use tepid or warm water. 
Cold water should only be used when the system has vigor 
enough to produce reaction upon the skin. This is shown 
by the increased redness of the skin and a feeling of warmth 
and comfort. 

496. Before using the sponge to bathe, a sheet, or fold 
of cloth, should be spread smoothly over the bed, and under 

492. Who is the natural nurse of the sick? What, then, is in¬ 
cumbent on every girl ? 493. Should there be schools to educate 

nurses, as well as physicians and surgeons? 494. What should the 
nurse provide herself with, before bathing a patient ? 495. When 
should cold water be used ? 496. How should the bathing then be 
performed so that the patient may not contract a cold ? 

12 



134 


DIRECTIONS FOR NURSES. 


the patient, to prevent the bed-linen on which the patient lies 
from becoming damp or wet. Apply the wet sponge to one 
part of the body at a time, as the arm, for instance. By doing 
so, the liability of contracting chills is diminished. Take a 
dry towel, wipe the bathed part, and follow this by vigorous 
rubbing with a crash towel, or, what is better, a mitten made 
of this material; then use briskly a piece of soft flannel, to 
remove all moisture that may exist on the skin, and particu¬ 
larly between the fingers and the flexions of the joints. In 
this manner, bathe the entire body. 

497. The sick should be thoroughly bathed at least twice 
in twenty-four hours. The practice of daubing the face and 
hands with a rag dipped in hot rum, camphor, and vinegar, 
does not remove the impurities, but causes the skin soon to 
feel dry, hard, and uncomfortable. The best time for bath¬ 
ing is when the patient feels the most vigorous and freest 
from exhaustion. 

498. Food. It is the duty of every woman to know how 
to make the simple preparations adapted to a low diet in the 
most wholesome and the most palatable way. Water-gruel,* 
which is the simplest of all preparations, is frequently so ill 
made as to cause the patient to loathe it. 

499. When the physician enjoins abstinence from food, 
the nurse should strictly obey the injunction. She should 
be as particular in getting the physician’s directions about 
diet, as in knowing how and when to give the prescribed 
medicines, and abide by them as faithfully. 

* Directions for making the simple preparations for the sick are found 
in almost every cook-book. 


497. How often should a sick person be bathed ? What is said of 
daubing the face and hands merely with a wet cloth ? 498. Should 

every woman know how to make the simple preparations adapted to a 
low diet? 499. Should the nurse strictly obey the injunctions of the 
physician relative to food P 



directions for Nurses. 


135 


500. When a patient is convalescent, it often requires 
firmness and great care, on the part of the nurse, that the 
food is prepared suitably, and given at proper times. The 
physician should direct how frequently it should be taken. 

501. Pure Air. It is the duty of the nurse to see that 
not only the room is well ventilated in the morning, but that 
fresh air is constantly coming in during the day. Great care 
must be taken, however, that the patient does not feel the 
current. 

502. Bed-linen, as well as that of the body, should be 
aired every day, and oftener changed in sickness than in 
health. All clothing, when changed, should be well dried, 
and warmed by a fire previous to its being put on the patient 
or the bed. 

503. There should be a well-adjusted thermometer in 
every sick-room. The feelings of the nurse or patient are 
not to be relied on as an index of the temperature of the 
room. 

504. The temperature of the sick-chamber should be 
moderate. If it is so cold as to cause a chill, the disease 
will be aggravated. If, on the other hand, it is too warm, 
the patient is enfeebled and rendered more susceptible to 
cold, on leaving the sick-chamber. The Latin maxim “ In 
medio tutissimus ibis” (in medium there is most safety,) 
should be regarded in the rooms of 'the sick. 

505. The room of the patient should be kept Quiet. It 
is the imperative duty of the physician to direct that all vis¬ 
itors be excluded, and no more persons remain in the room 


500. What period of a person’s illness requires the most care in 
regard to the food ? 501. Give another duty of the nurse. 502. 
What directions respecting the bed-linen of the patient ? What is 
necessary when there is a change of clothing ? 503. Why should 

there be a well-adjusted thermometer in every sick-chamber ? 504. 

What is said of the temperature of the sick-chamber ? 505. Should 

the sick-room be kept quiet ? 




136 


DIRECTIONS FOR WATCHERS. 


than the welfare of the patient demands. The duty of the 
nurse is, to see that these directions are enforced. 

506. The movements of the attendants should be gentle 
and noiseless. Shutting doors violently, creaking hinges, 
and all unnecessary noise, should be avoided. Most persons 
refrain from loud talking in the sick-chamber, but are not 
equally careful to abstain from whispering , which is often 
more trying than a common tone. 

507. The deportment and remarks of the nurse to the 
patient should be tranquil and encouraging. No doubts or 
fears of the patient’s recovery, either by a look or by a word, 
should be communicated by the nurse in the chamber of the 
sick. 

508. When such information is necessary to be commu¬ 
nicated, it is the trying duty of the physician to impart it to 
the sick person. 

509. The nurse should not confine herself to the sick- . 
room more than six hours at a time. She should eat her 
food regularly, sleep at regular periods, and take exercise 
daily in the open air. To do this, let her quietly leave the 
room when the patient is sleeping. A watcher, or temporary 
nurse, may supply her place. 

DIRECTIONS FOR WATCHERS. 

510. These necessary assistants, like the nurse, should 
have knowledge and practice. They should ever be cheerful, 
kind, firm, and attentive in the presence of the patient. 

506. What is said of noise in the sick-chamber ? Of whispering ? 
507. What should be the deportment of the nurse towards the patient ? 
Should doubts and fears of the patient’s recovery be communicated 
in the sick-room? 508. When necessary to communicate such in¬ 
telligence, on whom does it depend ? 509. How long should a nurse 
remain in the sick-chamber at a time ? 510. What qualifications are 
necessary in a watcher ? 



DIRECTIONS FOR WATCHERS. 


137 


511. A simple, nutritious supper should be eaten before 
entering the sick-room; and it is well, during the night, to 
take some plain food. 

512. When watching in cold weather, take care to be 
warmly dressed, and furnished with an extra garment, as a 
cloak or shawl, as you may be chilly before morning. 

513. It can hardly be expected that the farmer, who has 
been laboring hard in the field, or the mechanic, who has 
toiled during the day, is qualified to render all those little 
attentions that a sick person requires. Hence, would it not 
be more benevolent and economical to employ and pay 
watchers, who are qualified by knowledge and training , to 
perform this duty in a faithful manner, while the kindness 
and sympathy of friends may be practically manifested by 
assisting to defray the expenses of these qualified and useful 
assistants ? 


511. What directions in regard to the food of the watcher? 512. 
When watching in cold weather, what precaution is necessary? 
513. What is said of employing those persons to watch who labor 
hard during the day ? 

12 * 





APPENDIX 


POISONS AND THEIR ANTIDOTES. 

514. Poisoning, either from accident or design, is of such fre¬ 
quency and danger, that it is of the greatest importance that every 
person should know the proper mode of procedure in such cases, in 
order to render immediate assistance when within his power. 

515. Poisons are divided into two classes — mineral (which will 
include the acids) and vegetable. 

516. The first thing, usually, to be done, when it is ascertained 
that a poison has been swallowed, is to evacuate the stomach, unless 
vomiting takes place spontaneously. Emetics of the sulphate of zinc, 
(white vitriol,) or ipecacuanha, (ipecac,) or the wine of antimony, 
should be given. 

517. When vomiting has commenced, it should be aided by large 
and frequent draughts of the following drinks : flaxseed tea, gum- 
water, slippery-elm tea, barley-water, sugar and water, or any thing 
of a mucilaginous or diluent character. 

MINERAL POISONS. 

518. Ammonia. — The water of ammonia, if taken in an over-dose, 
and in an undiluted state, acts as a violent corrosive poison. 

519. The best and most effectual antidote is vinegar. It should 
be administered in water, without delay. It neutralizes the ammonia, 
and renders it inactive. Emetics should not be given. 

520. Antimony. — The wine of antimony and tartar emetic , if 
taken in over-doses, cause distressing vomiting. In addition to the 
diluent, mucilaginous drinks, give a tea-spoonful of the sirup of pop¬ 
pies, paregoric, or twenty drops of laudanum, every twenty minutes, 
until five or six doses have been taken, or the vomiting ceases. 

521. The antidotes are nut-galls and oak bark, which may be ad¬ 
ministered in infusion. 

522. Arsenic. — When this has been taken, administer an emetic 
of ipecac, speedily, in mucilaginous teas, and use the stomach-pump 
as soon as possible. 

514. Is it useful to know the antidotes or remedies for poison ? 515. Into how many 
classes are poisons divided? 516. What is the first thing to be done when it is ascer¬ 
tained that poison has been swa lowed ? 517. What should be taken after the vomit¬ 
ing has commenced ? 518. What effect has an over-dose of ammonia ? 519. The 

antidote ? Should an emetic be given for this pojson ? 520. What effect has an over¬ 
dose of the wine of antimony or tartar emetic? 521. What is the antidote? 522. 
What should immediately be done when arsenic is swallowed ? 




APPENDIX. 


139 


o23. The antidote is the hydrated -peroxide of iron. It should be 
kept constantly on hand at the apothecaries’ shops. It may be given 
in any quantity, without injurious results. 

524. Copper. — The most common cause of poisoning from this 
metal, is through the careless use of cooking utensils made of it, on 
which the acetate of copper (verdigris) has been allowed to form. 
When this has been taken, immediately induce vomiting, give muci¬ 
laginous drinks, or, what is still better, the white of eggs , diffused in 
water. 

525. The antidote is the carbonate of soda, which should be admin¬ 
istered without delay. 

526. Lead. — The acetate (sugar) of lead is the preparation of this 
metal which is liable to be taken accidentally, in poisonous doses. 
Induce immediate vomiting, by emetics and diluent drinks. 

527. The antidote is diluted sulphuric acid. When this acid is not 
to be obtained, either the sulphate of magnesia, (epsom salts,) or the 
sulphate of soda, (glauber’s salts,) will answer every purpose. 

528. Mercury. —The preparation of this mineral by which poi¬ 
soning is commonly produced, is corrosive sublimate. The mode of 
treatment to be pursued, when this poison has been swallowed, is as 
follows: The whites of a dozen eggs should be beaten in two quarts 
of cold water, and a tumbler-ful given evory two minutes, to induce 
vomiting. When the whites of eggs are not to be obtained, soap and 
water should be mixed with wheat flour, and given in copious draughts, 
and the stomach-pump introduced as soon as possible. Emetics or ir¬ 
ritating substances ought not to be given. 

529. Nitre — Saltpetre. This, in over-doses, produces violent 
poisonous symptoms. Vomiting should be immediately induced by 
large doses of mucilaginous, diluent drinks; but emetics, which irritate 
the stomach, ought not to be given. 

530. Zinc. — Poisoning is sometimes caused by the sulphate of zinc , 
(white vitriol.) When this takes place, vomiting should be induced, 
and aided by large draughts of mucilaginous and diluent drinks. Use 
the stomach-pump as soon as possible. 

531. The antidote is the carbonate or super-carbonate of soda. 

532. Nitric, (aqua fortis,) muriatic, (marine acid,) or sulphuric, 
(oil of vitriol,) acids, may be taken by accident, and produce poisonous 
effects. 

533. The antidote is calcined magnesia, which should be freely ad¬ 
ministered, to neutralize the acid and induce vomiting. When mag¬ 
nesia cannot be obtained, the carbonate of potash (salasratus) may 
be given. Chalk , powdered and given in solution, or strong soap 
suds , will answer a good purpose, when the other articles are not at 

593. What is the antidote? Can any quantity of this preparation of iron be given 
without injurious results? 594. What should be given when verdigris has been 
taken into the stomach? 595. What is the antidote? 596. What should immedi¬ 
ately be given when sugar of lead is taken? 597. What is the antidote? 598. Give 
the treatment when corrosive sublimate has been swallowed. 599. What effect has 
an over-dose of saltpetre ? What treatment should be adopted ? 530. What is the 
antidote for white vitriol ? 533. What is the antidote for aqua fortis and oil of vitriol ? 



140 


APPENDIX. 


hand. It is of very great importance that something be given speedily, 
to neutralize the acid. One of the substances before named should be 
taken freely, in diluent and mucilaginous drinks ; as gum-water, milk, 
flaxseed or slippery-elm tea. Emetics ought to be avoided. 

f>34. Oxalic Acid. — This acid resembles the sulphate of magne¬ 
sia, (epsom salts, - ) which renders it liable to be taken, by mistake, in 
poisonous doses. Many accidents have occurred from this circum¬ 
stance. They can easily be distinguished by tasting a small quantity. 
Epsom salts , when applied to the tongue, have a very bitter taste, 
while oxalic acid is intensely sour. 

535. The antidote is magnesia , between which and the acid a 
chemical action takes place, producing the oxalate of magnesia, which 
is inert. When magnesia is not at hand, chalk , lime , or carbonate of 
potash , (salseratus,) will answer as a substitute. 

536. Give the antidote in some of the mucilaginous drinks before 
named. No time ought to be lost, but the stomach-pump should be 
introduced as soon as a surgeon can be obtained. 

537. Ley. — The ley obtained by the leaching of ashes may be 
taken by a child accidentally. The antidote is vinegar, or oil of any 
kind. The vinegar neutralizes the alkali by uniting with it, forming 
the acetate of potash. The oil unites with the alkali, and forms soap, 
which is less caustic than the ley. Give, at the same time, large 
draughts of mucilaginous drinks, as flaxseed tea, &c. 


VEGETABLE POISONS. 

538. The vegetable poisons are quite as numerous, and many of 
them equally as violent, as any in the mineral kingdom. We shall 
describe the most common, and which, therefore, are most liable to be 
taken. 

539. Opium. — This is the article most frequently resorted to by 
those wishing to commit suicide, and, being used as a common medi¬ 
cine, is easily obtained. From this cause, also, mistakes are very 
liable to be made, and accidents result from it. Two of its prepara¬ 
tions, laudanum and paregoric , are frequently mistaken for each other; 
the former being given when the latter is intended. 

540. Morphia■, in solution, or morphine , as it is more commonly 
called by the public, is a preparation of the drug under consideration, 
with which many cases of poisoning are produced. It is the active 
narcotic principle of the opium ; and one grain is equal to six of this 
drug in its usual form. 

541. When an over-dose of opium, or any of its preparations, has 
been swallowed, the stomach should be evacuated as speedily as possi¬ 
ble. To effect this, as much tartar emetic as can be held on a ten-cent 

Should emetics be avoided ? 534. How can oxalic acid be distinguished from epsom 
salts ? 535. What is the antidote for an over-dose of oxalic acid ? When magnesia 
cannot be obtained, what will answer as a substitute ? 537. What is the antidote 

when ley is swallowed ? 538. Are vegetable poisons as numerous and as violent in 
their effects as mineral ? 539. What is said of opium and its preparations ? 541. 
What treatment should be adopted when an over-dose of opium or any of its prepara¬ 
tions is taken ? 



APPENDIX. 


141 


piece, or as much ipecacuanha as can be held on a twenty-five cent 
piece, should be dissolved in a tumbler of warm water, and one half 
given at once, and the remainder in twenty minutes, if the first has 
not, in the mean time, operated. In the interval, copious draughts of 
warm water, or warm sugar and water, should be drank. 

542. The use of the stomach-pump, in these cases, is of the great¬ 
est importance, and should be resorted to without delay. After most 
of the poison has been evacuated from the stomach, a strong infusion 
of coffee ought to be given ; or some one of the vegetable acids, such 
as vinegar or lemon-juice , should be administered. 

543. The patient should be kept in motion, and salutary effects 
will often be produced by dashing a bucket of cold water on the head. 
Artificial respiration ought to be established, and kept up for some 
time. If the extremities are cold, apply warmth and friction to them. 
After the poison has been evacuated from the stomach, stimulants, 
as warm wine and water, or warm brandy and water, ought to be given, 
to keep up and sustain vital action. 

544. Strammonium — Thorn-Apple. This is one of the most 
active narcotic poisons, and when taken in over-doses, has, in numer¬ 
ous instances, caused death. 

545. The Treatment. — Similar to that recommended in poisoning 
from opium. 

546. Hyosciamus — Henbane. This article, which is used as a 
medicine, if taken in improper doses, acts as a virulent irritating and 
narcotic poison. 

547. Treatment. — Similar to that of poisoning from over-doses of 
opium. 

548. Conium — Hemlock. Hemlock, improperly called, by many, 
cicuta , when taken in an over-dose, acts as a narcotic poison. It was 
by this narcotic that the Athenians used to destroy the lives of indi¬ 
viduals condemned to death by their laws. Socrates is said to have 
been put to death by this poison. When swallowed in over-doses, 
the treatment is similar to that of opium, strammonium, and henbane, 
when over-doses are taken. 

549. Belladonna — Deadly Nightshade. Camphor. Aconite — 
Monkshood, Wolfsbane. Bryony — Bryonia. Digitalis — Foxglove. 
Dulcamara — Bitter-sweet. Gamboge. Lobelia — Indian Tobacco. 
Sanguinaria — Blood-root. Oil of Savin. Spigelia — Pink-root.. 
Strychnine — Nux vomica. Tobacco. All of these, when taken in 
over-doses, are poisons of greater or less activity. The treatment 
of poisoning, by the use of any of these articles, is similar to that pur¬ 
sued in over-doses of opium. (See Opium , page 140.) 

550. In all cases of poisoning, call a physician as soon as possible. 


543. Should the person he kept in motion ? 544. What should he the treatment 
when an over-dose of strammonium is taken? 546. For henbane? 548. What name 
is sometimes improp rlv given to conium , or hemlock ? How was this narcotic poison 
used b the Athenians? How are the effects of an over-dose counteracted? 549. 
Wiiat is the treatment when an over-dose of deadly nightshade, monkshood, fox¬ 
glove, bitter-sweet, gamboge, lobelia, blood-root, tobacco, &c.,is taken? 550. Should 
a physician be called in all cases when poison is swallowed ? 



GLOSSARY. 


Ab-SORP'tiON. From the Latin ab¬ 
sorber e, to suck up. The use of the 
absorbent vessels is to take up substances 
from without or within the body. 

Ac-e-tab'u-lum. From the Latin ace- 
tum , vinegar. The cavity in the hip¬ 
bone, so called from its resemblance to 
the ancient Greek vinegar vessel. 

A-nat'o-my. From the Greek ana, 
through, and temnd, I cut. A descrip¬ 
tion of the structure of animals. 

A-or'ta. From the Greek aorte, to keep 
in air. The large vessel that carries 
blood from the heart. 

Ap-pa-ra'tus. From the Latin ad, for, 
and parare, to prepare. A collection of 
organs. 

Ap-pen'dix. From the Latin ad, to, and 
penderc, to hang. Something added. 

A-RACH'NOID. From the Greek arach- 
ne, a spider’s web, and eidos, resem¬ 
blance. A thin membrane that covers 
the brain. 

Ar'te-ry. From the Greek arteria, 
formed from aer, air, and tercin, to keep. 
The ancients believed that the arte¬ 
ries were filled with air, like the 
windpipe. 

At'mos-phere. From the Greek atmos, 
vapor, and sphaira, a sphere. The air 
which surrounds the earth. 

Au'di-to-ry. Belonging to the sense 
of hearing. 

Au'ri-cle. From the Latin auris, an 
ear. The two cavities of the heart 
derive the name from their resemblance 
to ears. 

Bi-cus'pids. From the Latin bis, two, 
and cuspis, a point. The name of cer¬ 
tain teeth. 

Bii-e. A yellow, bitter, nauseous fluid, 
secreted by the liver. 

Bron'chus, -chi. From the Greek brog- 
chos, the throat. The two branches of 
the windpipe. 

Bron'chi-ae. Relating to the bronchi. 

Ca-nine'. From the Latin canis, a dog. 
The name of certain teeth. 

Cap'il-L,a-ry. From the Latin capillus, 
hair. The capillary vessels are the ex¬ 
tremely minute terminations of the ar¬ 


teries, and commencing branches of the 
veins. 

Car'bon. Pure charcoal. 

Car-bon'ic. Relating to carbon. 

Car'di-a. Frqm the Greek kardia, the 
heart. The opening of the stomach 
w here the oesophagus enters. 

Car'pus. From the Greek karpos, the 
wrist. There are eight bones in the 
wrist. 

Car'ti-lage. Gristle; a part of the 
animal body, softer than bone, but 
harder than ligament. 

Cer-e-bel'lum. The lower and small¬ 
er portion of the brain. 

Cer'e-brum. The upper and larger por¬ 
tion of the brain. 

Chest. The part of the body between 
the neck and the belly. 

Cho'roid. From the Greek chorion, the 
skin, and eidos, resemblance. 

Chyi.e. From the Greek chulos, nutri¬ 
tious juice. 

Chyme. From the Greek chumos, 'a 
grayish juice. 

CiiAi-a-ry. Latin. Relating to the eye¬ 
lids. 

Clay'i-cle. From the Latin clavis, a 
key. The collar-bone. 

Coc'cyx. Latin. The lower extremity 
of the spinal column. 

Coch'ee-a. Latin. A snail-shell. A 
name given to one of the three cavities 
of the internal ear. 

Co'lon. Greek. The first portion of 
the large intestines. 

Con'cave. Hollow; as the inner surface 
of a spherical body. 

Con'vex. Bulging; as the external sur¬ 
face of a spherical body. 

Cor'ne-A. From the Latin cornu, a 
horn. One of the coats of the eye. 

Cu'ti-cle. The external layer of the 
skin. 

Cu'tis Ve'ra. Latin. The true skin. 
The internal layer of the skin. 

Di'a-phragm. From the Greek dia- 
phragma, a partition. The muscle that 
separates the lungs and heart from the 
stomach, liver, and intestines. 

Di-ges'tiox. The process of dissolving 







GLOSSARY 


143 


food in the stomach, and preparing it for 
circulation and nourishment. 

Du-o-de'num. The first of the small 
intestines, being about twelve fingers’ 
breadth. 

Du'ra. Latin. Hard. A dense mem¬ 
brane which covers the brain. 

En-am'el. The smooth, hard substance 
which covers the crowns of the teeth. 

Ep-i-glot'tis. From the Greek epi, 
upon, and glottis, the glottis. A kind 
of cartilaginous valve at the upper part 
of the larynx, behind the base of the 
tongue. It closes at the moment of 
swallowing, to prevent food and drink 
from passing into the windpipe. 

Eu-sta'chi-an Tube. So called from 
its discoverer, Eustachius. A tube that 
connects the middle ear with the throat. 

Ex-ha'lent. From the Latin exhalare, 
to throw out. 

Ex-trem'i-ties. The limbs; the legs 
and arms. 

Fe'mur. Latin. The thigh-bone. 

Fi'bre. An organic filament, or thread, 
of a solid consistence, which enters 
into the composition of every animal 
and vegetable texture. 

Fib'u-la. Latin. A clasp. The outer 
and lesser bone of the leg. 

Fol'li-cle. From the Latin follis, a 
bag. Very minute secreting cavities. 

Fore'ARM. That part of the arm be¬ 
tween the elbow and wrist. 

Func'tion. From the Latin fungor, I 
act, I perform. The action of organs ; 
as the function or action of the eye is 
to see, the ear to hear. 

Gas'tric Juice. From the Greek gas- 
ter, the stomach. The fluid secreted by 
the stomach. 

Gel'a-tin. From the Latin gelu, .jelly. 

Glot'tis. A small, oblong opening at 
the upper part of the larynx. 

Hu'mer-us. The bone of the arm, sit¬ 
uated between the shoulder-joint and 
elbow. 

IIu'mor. Every fluid sunstance of an 
organized body ; as the chyle, the blood. 

In-ci'sor. From the Latin incido, I cut. 
The fore-teeth. 

I'RIS. Latin. The rainbow. The col¬ 
ored membrane round the pupil of the 
eye. 

Lab'y-RINTII. From the Greek laburin- 
thos, a place full of turnings. A name 
given to the windings of the internal 
ear. 

Lach'RY-MAL. From the Latin lachry- 
ma, a tear. 

Lac'te-al. From the Latin lac, milk. 
The vessels that convey the chyle, or a 
milk like substance, into the veins. 

Lar'ynx. From the Greek larugx, a 
whistle. The upper part of the wind¬ 
pipe. 


Lig'a-ment. From ligo, I bind. A 
strong, fibrous substance, which binds 
bones, &c., together. 

Lobe. A round, projecting part of an 
organ. 

Mas'ti-cate. To chew. 

Me-dul'la Spi-na'lis. From the Lat¬ 
in medulla, marrow, and spinalis, relat¬ 
ing to the spine. The spinal cord. 

Me-dul'la Ob-lon-ga'ta. The spi¬ 
nal cord that is situated within the 
skull-bones. 

Mem'brane. From the Latin membra- 
na, a film, a delicate web. A name 
given to different thin organs. 

Mes'en-ter-y. From the Greek mesos, 
in the middle, and enteron, an intestine. 
A membrane in the middle of the intes¬ 
tines, by which they are attached to the 
spinal column. 

Met-a-car'pus. From the Greek meta, 
after, and karpos, the wrist. That part 
of the hand between the wrist and fin¬ 
gers. 

Met-a-tar'sus. From the Greek meta, 
after, and tarsos, the instep. That part 
of the foot between the instep and toes. 

Mid'rif-f. The diaphragm. 

Mo'lar. From the Latin molo, I grind. 
The name of certain teeth. 

Mu'cus. A viscid fluid secreted by the 
mucous membrane, which it serves to 
moisten, and also to defend. 

Mus'cle. A bundle of fibres enclosed 
in a sheath. x 

Mus'cu-lar. Relating to the muscles. 

Nerve. An organ of sensation and 
motion in animals. 

Ni'tro-gen. From the Greek nitron, 
nitre, and gcnnuO, I beget. One of the 
gases that compose atmospheric air. 

Nu-tri'tion. The act or process of pro¬ 
moting the growth, or repairing the 
waste of the system. 

CE-sopii'a-gus. From the Greek oid, I 
carry, and phagd, I eat. The tube that 
leads from the mouth to the stomach. 

Ol-fac'to-ry. From the Latin ol,'ac¬ 
tus. Belonging to the sense of smell. 

O-men'tum. Latin. The caul, so called 
because the ancient priests prophesied 
from an inspection of this part of the 
body. 

Or'gan. From the Greek organon, an 
instrument. A part of the system des¬ 
tined to exercise some particular func¬ 
tion. 

Ox'Y-GEN. From the Greek oxus, acid, 
and geinomai, I engender. A gas which 
constitutes about one fifth of our atmos¬ 
phere. 

Pan'cRE-as. From the Greek pan, all, 
and kreas, flesh ; that is, quite fleshy. 
A gland situated behind the stomach. 

Pan-cre-at'ic. Relating to the pancreas. 

Pa-PIL'la. From the Latin papilla, nip- 



144 


GLOSSARY. 


pie. Small, conical prominences seen 
on the tongue and skin. 

Pa-ROT'id. From the Greek para, about, 
and ous, the ear. A gland situated under 
the ear. 

Pa-tel'la. From the Latin, patina, a 
dish. The kneepan. 

Pel'vis. Latin. A basin. The name 
of a bony structure at the lower part of 
the trunk. 

Per-i-os'te-um. From pm - , about, and 
os, bone. The membrane or skin that 
surrounds the bones. 

Per-spi-ra'tion. The evacuation of 
the fluids of the body through the pores 
of the skin. 

Pha-lan'ges. From the Greek pha- 
lagz, a file of soldiers. The bones com¬ 
posing the fingers and toes. 

Pha'rynx. From the Greek pharugz, 
the pharynx. * The swallow. 

Phys-i-ol'o-gy. From the Greek phu- 
sis , nature, and logos, a discourse. The 
science which treats of the functions of 
animals and vegetables. 

Pleu'ra. Greek. The membrane that 
lines the chest and surrounds the lungs. 

Pul'mo-na-ry. Belonging to the lungs. 

Py-lo'rus. From the Greek pule, a 
gate, and ouros, a guardian. The ori¬ 
fice of the stomach, that connects with 
the duodenum. 

Ra'di-us. Latin. A spoke. The small 
bone of the fore-arm. 

Rec'tum. The lower and straight por¬ 
tion of the intestines. 

Ret'i-na. From the Latin rets, a net. 
The net-like expansion of the optic nerve 
on the inner surface of thfe eye. 

Re-sid'u-um. Residue. The waste re¬ 
mains of the food. 

Res-pi-ra'tion. The act of breathing. 

Sa'crum. A bone so called because it. 
was offered in sacrifice. The lower 
portion of the spinal column. 

Sa-li'va. Latin. The fluid secreted in 
the mouth. 

Sai/i-va-ry. Belonging or relating to 
saliva. 

Scap'u-la. Latin. The shoulder-blade. 

Scle-rot'IC. From the Greek skleroo, 
I harden. A membrane of the eye. 

Se-cre'tion. From the Latin secernere, 
to separate. The function of several 
glands, by which they separate from the 
blood the material which they respec¬ 
tively demand for their several purposes. 

Skel'e-ton. From the Greek slcellb, 
I dry. The articulated, dry bones of an 
animal. 

Spi'nal Cord. A prolongation of the 
brain. 


Spine. From the Latin spina, a thorn. 
The back bone. 

Spleen. The milt. It was supposed by 
the ancients to be the seat of melan¬ 
choly, anger, and vexation. 

Sub-lin'gual. From the Latin sub, 
under, and lingua, the tongue. The 
name applied to the gland under the 
tongue. 

Sub-max'il-la-ry. From the Latin 
sub, under, and mazilla, the jaw-bone. 
The name applied to the gland under 
the jaw. 

Su'ture. From the Latin suo, I stitch. 
The seam or joint which unites the 
skull-bones. 

Sy-no'vi-a. . From the Greek sun, with, 
and bon, an egg. The lubricating fluia 
of the joints. 

Sys'tem. From the Greek sun, together, 
and istemi, I place. An assemblage of 
organs, composed of the same tissues, 
and intended for the same functions. 

Sys-tem'ic. Belonging to the general 
system. 

Tar'sus. From the Greek tarsos, any 
row. The space between the bone of 
the leg and the metatarsus. 

Ten'don. From the Greek teinb, I 
stretch. Strong, white cords that con¬ 
nect the muscles to the bone which 
they move. 

Tho-rac'ic. From the Greek thdraz, 
the chest. 

Tib'i-a. Latin. A pipe or flute. The 
largest bone of the leg. 

Tra'che-a. From the Greek trachus, 
rough, and arteria. The canal that con¬ 
veys air to the lungs. 

Trunk. The body of animals, without 
the limbs. 

Tym'pa-num. Latin. The drum of the 
ear. 

Ul'na. Latin. A cubit. A bone of the 
fore-arm. 

Valve. From the Latin valvw, a small 
door. Any membrane, or doubling of 
any membrane, which prevents fluid 
from flowing back in the vessels and 
canals of the animal body. 

Veins. From the Latin vena. The ves¬ 
sels that carry the blood to the heart. 

Ven'tri-cle. Latin. A small cavity 
of the animal body. 

Ver'te-bra, -m. From the Latin verto, 
I turn. A joint of the spinal column. 

Vi'rus. Latin. Poison. 

Vi'tal. From the Latin vita, life. 

Vit're-ous. Pertaining to glass. A 
name given to one of the humors of 
the eye. 


t 




ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 


School Committees and Teachers are respectfully in¬ 
vited to examine the series of text-books on Anatomy, Phys¬ 
iology, and the preservation of health, by Calvin Cutter, M.D. 
They will be furnished for examination to teachers and school 
committees by B. B. Mussey & Co., 27 Cornhill, Boston. 
Sanborn & Carter, Portland, Me. Clark & Austin, 205 
Broadway, N. Y. U. Hunt & Son, 44 North Fourth St., 
Philadelphia. John F. Brown, Concord, N. H. 

FIRST BOOK ON ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 

This is a work of 140 pages, illustrated by 83 engravings. 
The structure, use, and conditions of health, of the most 
important parts of the system, are clearly explained, in plain, 
common language. It is a work that may be comprehended 
by a child of ten years. Price 38 cts. 

COMMON SCHOOL PHYSIOLOGY. 

This is a work of 230 pages, illustrated by 112 engravings. 
It embraces the laws of health, the structure and functions of 
the Skin , Bones , Muscles , Digestive organs , Lungs , Heart , 
Blood-vessels , and Brain ; to which are added directions for the 
proper treatment of persons poisoned , drowned, scalded , 
wounded , bleeding, &c., making it not only valuable for schools, 
but useful for families. Price 58 cts. 

1 



ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 


This work, of 342 pages, embraces, 1, Anatomy, a descrip¬ 
tion of the different parts of the human system, illustrated by 
more than two hundred superior engravings. 2, Physiology, 
a description of the uses of the several parts of the system. 

3, Hygiene, the laws of health and the prevention of disease. 

4, The management of accidental diseases, as the recovery of 
persons apparently drowned, the treatment of wounds, burns, 
&c., &c. This work is designed for High Schools, Academies, 
&c., in which it is extensively used. Price 75 cts. 


From numerous commendations we invite attention to the 
following: 

“Middlebury College, Vt., June 1 , 1847. 
Dr. Cutter, 

Dear Sir,—I take pleasure in stating that your elementary 
work on Anatomy and Physiology is used in this College as a 
text-book, and it appears to be well adapted to such a course 
of instruction in these subjects as comes within the design of 
academies and colleges. 

Your obedient servant, 

C. B. ADAMS, 

Prof. Chem. fyc. 


I have paid attention to the work of Dr. Cutter above 
alluded to, and can cheerfully express my concurrence in the 
opinion of Professor Adams. 

B. LABAREE, 

Pres. Mid. College. 




3 


Springfield High School, March, 1846. 
Dr. Cutter, 

Dear Sir,—I have adopted your work on Anatomy and 
Physiology as a text-book. Our Town School Committee 
were unanimous in favor of its introduction, and I am fully 
confident that it will be found a judicious selection. I have 
heretofore used several kinds of text-books on this subject, 
which have been highly esteemed, and justly so, by teachers 
generally; but the superiority of this work is so obvious on 
every page, that I have not hesitated for a moment to give it 
the preference over all others. 

Among its excellencies will be found an unusually clear 
description of what is essential, free from useless verbiage. 
No work of the kind has ever been published, so full of illus¬ 
trations, and these are remarkably adapted to render the sub¬ 
ject clear to the comprehension of the pupil. While technical 
language is used, it is confined chiefly to particular description 
of plates, or topics independently, leaving the popular instruc¬ 
tion so plain that a child can understand it. 

As a text-book for schools, or a work adapted to general 
reading, I believe it will be found superior to anything that 
has ever yet been laid before the public. 

# A. PARISH, 

Principal of the Springfield High School. 


Salem, February 15, 1847. 

Dr. C. Cutter, 

Dear Sir,—I have made use, in instruction, of your 
“ Anatomy and Physiology designed for schools ” somewhat 
more than a year. I feel very well satisfied with it as a text¬ 
book in the study of this important subject. In its arrange¬ 
ment and illnstrations, I deem it decidedly superior to every 

other book of the kind that has come under my observation. 

1$. 




I gladly embrace this opportunity of urging the importance of 
making this one of the common studies of all the schools de¬ 
signed for the right education of all classes of society. 

EDWIN JOCELYN, 

Principal of the Ladies’ High School, Salem . 


More than thirty thousand copies of this series of books 
have been sold the first two years of their publication. They 
have been extensively adopted as text-books in the Common 
Schools of New England and New York, among which we 
will name the following : 

In Massachusetts, the three State Normal Schools; 
the Common Schools in the Cities of Lowell, Salem, Cam¬ 
bridge, Charlestown; the towns of Worcester, Springfield, 
Warren, Brookfield, Leicester, Shrewsbury, Northboro’, Bol¬ 
ton, Harvard, Littleton, Weston, Newton, Waltham, Water- 
town, Dedham, Medway, Duxbury, Abington, Lynn, Glouces¬ 
ter, Beverly, Marblehead, Danvers, Wenham, Rowley, New- 
buryport, Haverhill, Pepperell, Groton, Manchester, Ipswich, 
Essex, Rockport, &c. 

In New Hampshire, this series of books are used in 
the Common Schools of Nashua, Hollis, Milford, Wilton, 
Exeter, Keene, Fitzwilliam, Jaffrey, Dublin, &c., &c. 

In M mne, these works have been introduced into the 
public schools of Portland, Westbrook, Gorham, Saco, Bath, 
Belfast, &c. 

In Rhode Island, these text-books on Anatomy and 
Physiology have been adopted in the Common Schools of 
Providence, North Providence, Warren, &c. 

In New York, these works have been introduced into 
the public schools of Troy, Utica, Buffalo, Mount Morris, Ly¬ 
ons, &c. 


















>> ^ > • • ,x ; - *\< < *. >; * 

f *a a * - A V * * 

^ ,/A ^ 



Vo .c, 

<s V ° 







.<0 A 

■rf. V'era', A ^ • 

"•>,\ ' ° ' ‘ * .0*° C» N c * V ' ** 

NT 4£V// >r> *> k 

r- '. '“O' ° 

Ot/ O S. -/* >* 

>. .V ^ • 

^ < 

Vo N <V ^ 



■TOV . 


^ v 0 

v V * a i 1 * w ^ ^ * 5 

\ > V, « * \ ^N. . n tt . *^/> 

V) AVV* <* ' V 





.vX^' ,J ^_ o g( 

* ^ 'A, <> L t<^ l '>5 v i o! 

.o^ c • - •. 'v 7 *''^V 1 ** 'V/’^v 0 <• 

G * -r^srv S'? A -i O G * 

W ^ r »«' : 

y°° 






>• o. * 

C ^. / *3K0' J \* , * 

C* X 1 * " t 

c 


% * v ^ AWV /* ^ • 

• •' VV ■ * * V 0 ' 1 >V * VV ' * *'' ' v 

» « V v X _ /Y>2-? •i O G * _r5^Tv ^ . vL- v v ’ ^ 

>*• «aN ^ ,#• v "-. f» . **> YpiL. ^ ^ -an 

*• >; - - *'-'''< 

^ ^ -v ' 

A ^ s'*’0' 1 c. 




'/■ ,A’ i ’ * -.' ICA "e ■ V- cS 

t^V « r ' Wf^' ' ^ 

,A V 1/1 


o 5 >% 

\t? <' *> 


/,c*;^'"V .* 


"oo' 


’ \‘ e Vil ^ 

>-■ j | .-^ / 

TYI * 


*s. 

^ "V- 

- 

A* < V'- ' 

= j£ if « 

''iJ^P ** 

K 0 O. 

IV 

y 

j 





'x _<jsi-/ o» 



,,^ O 


















* 



/> 

%' 

9 0*. </> 

'V o 

* 

* <Y» 

>: ^ <❖ 

a«\\y ,■ c= 

’\K * <1? <?> * ^^NJ, ^ 

* *■ * ^ N // ■/ ft * s v A X 

0° ^ /V 

=>o x 


V s 

0° °o 

O' 

^ C S » * / ^ 





-t. 




, * ^ - ■* ov 

■ /■ ' 0 * ** ' A 0 o N c 

- °o 0 ° * 

-. ■'■•*• K :§mgp* 'oo' ° 

.0 o " i/JJ- - v . * j .,•, 

K- -^9// ; -7X- >, A 0 \X^ c$* 

^ * $£• ’ r~V" /// A / *af \ . y ^->''1 \ ^T> **> - 

. s-/V**N0'* /\. 0 

* o ~ ^ Cy S s ; / / C> V *. x 0 /• *> 

.V ^ ♦ ■ -v 

’ \. i\ * ■ ’, r"'-- <1 »V* 

^ ^ 

0 * „s ^ kV 



k#V'' ^ # - 

^ 

.\V‘ ?A o . V • * V> '''S' 

* * ^ -.w; & ^ ^ 

-* ^ + /j 

' v* V 



V* £ "2* “ -* aV '-- * ^mptr ^ A 

6<t s' \ X , fl y o*v' k *G * * X 

°o c.° l . c ^:*' ^ * 

* ' ' "'° $ : *^ia v A > . 

v * .* -u - x 5 

+■* iy^.' ,o° °o %, 

. 7 // o 



y ^V-.';\ ; ,- :r > [>v 

'f, • 

° N °' 

^ <f> . r ^ ^ ^ 

<X^‘ ^ W y 

1 <A V •* S z ^ 

> ^ z c 



- *; 

v' 




• i *><-■•«>. 

° ^ K 

« *■ ^ 

% \ *<' -r 

/ 




'..s'V ilt ^ 

« % ©5 ,-0 v ^ c 

^ ^ MSdl'ffe-, * , 

. «> ^ /«k WWA'^'- >y v 

" oq x 



j 5 ^ 


•>> \v- ^ 



rL' / ^ 0 C* >/ y V- 0 O /U 

"■ '■»»,-* ' /' s v . . * » N 0 ’ ^ , . , f \ 

\ <k ^fnt^ '<• '*f> . t- 

o ,V 



: 


' d* ~ t, ^ & ’ 

- 7 0 * A * J«0 



%;°o o°» c 

1 "o o' f 


' c5> %■ ■ : 

** #* * \ 

*‘ J - c » M ' <! « %'''”'\6 

* J. 'p <i 

^ v * x 

« ^ > » 

<t 


4 : 

' V , 

)<^ 

^ '**. + _ 

C- / •* 0 ^‘ r-P L > rJ v ' 

* •> N 0 \^ V ^ ^ I I '* v v 

\> ^*»A > , 0 ‘ 



° ^ />p - ° 'M/ ^SAjsr * 

V + 

<\ 02 S n . i * 











